【学习路线图】深度学习从入门到入土

第一单元 如何写介绍

1.1 Structure

1.1结构
Until now, much of your science writing has focused on writing reports in which you simply described what you did and what you found. Although this will help you write the central ‘report’ sections (Methodology and Results) of a research paper or thesis, it doesn’t prepare you for writing an Introduction to a full-length research article; this is a new task that faces you once you move on to research writing.
到目前为止，你的大部分科学写作都集中在写报告上，在报告中你简单地描述了你做了什么和你发现了什么。虽然这会帮助你撰写研究论文或论文的中心“报告”部分（方法论和结果），但它并不能让你为撰写一篇完整的研究文章做好准备;这是一项新的任务，一旦你转向研究写作。
In practice, you will find that you need to be certain about what you have done and what you have found in order to write the Introduction, and so the best time to write it will be after you have written, or at least draft ed, the report sections. However, in this book, the structure of a research article is presented in the order in which it appears in a paper/thesis so that you can trace the connections between each part and see the sequence in which information is presented to the reader.
在实践中，你会发现，为了写引言，你需要确定你做了什么和你发现了什么，所以写引言的最佳时间是在你写好报告部分之后，或者至少是起草好报告部分之后。然而，在这本书中，研究文章的结构是按照它在论文/论文中出现的顺序呈现的，这样你就可以追踪每个部分之间的联系，并看到信息呈现给读者的顺序。

You may want to start your Introduction by describing the problem you are trying to solve, or the aim of your work, but as you will see when you examine published work, this is not how most research papers begin — and therefore it is not the best way for you to begin. In order to help you write the Introduction to your own research, the model you build must answer the following three questions:

你可能想通过描述你试图解决的问题或你工作的目标来开始你的介绍，但是当你检查已发表的作品时，你会发现这不是大多数研究论文的开始方式——因此这不是你开始的最佳方式。为了帮助您撰写自己研究的介绍，您构建的模型必须回答以下三个问题：

• How do writers normally start the Introduction?
  作者通常如何开始引言？
• What type of information should be in my Introduction, and in what order?
  我的简介中应该包含哪些类型的信息，以及顺序如何？
• How do writers normally end the Introduction?
  作者通常如何结束引言？
  
  The first thing you may notice about Fig. 1 is that it is symmetrical. This is because many of the things you need to do in the Introduction are done — in reverse order — in the Discussion/Conclusion. For example, you need to write an opening sentence which enables you and your reader to ‘get in’ or start your paper/thesis and you also need to ‘get out’ at the end of the Discussion/Conclusion by finding an acceptable way to end the paper/thesis. In addition, you must look for a way to interface with the central report section at the end of the Introduction, and again — in reverse — when you move out of the central section to start the Discussion/ Conclusion.
  你可能注意到的第一件事就是图1是对称的。这是因为你在引言中需要做的许多事情都在讨论/结论中完成了--以相反的顺序。例如，你需要写一个开场白，让你和你的读者“进入”或开始你的论文/论文，你还需要在讨论/结论的结尾找到一个可以接受的方式来结束论文/论文。此外，您必须寻找一种方法来与引言末尾的中心报告部分进行接口，并在您移出中心部分以开始讨论/结论时再次进行接口。
  Something else you should notice about the shape of the diagram is that it narrows towards the central report section, and widens after it. This represents the way information is ordered in the Introduction and the Discussion/Conclusion: in the Introduction you start out by being fairly general and gradually narrow your focus, whereas the opposite is true in the Discussion/Conclusion.
  关于图的形状，您应该注意的另一点是，它向中心报告部分变窄，然后变宽。这代表了引言和讨论/结论中信息的排序方式：在引言中，你开始时相当笼统，然后逐渐缩小你的重点，而在讨论/结论中则相反。
  Read the Introduction below. Don’t worry if the subject matter is not familiar or if you have difficulty understanding individual words, especially technical terms like polylactide. Just try to get a general understanding at this stage and familiarise yourself with the type of language used.
  阅读下面的介绍。不要担心，如果主题不熟悉，或者如果你有困难理解个别单词，特别是技术术语，如聚乳酸。试着在这个阶段获得一个大致的理解，并熟悉所使用的语言类型。

The synthesis of flexible polymer blends from polylactide and rubber
聚乳酸/橡胶柔性共混物的合成
Introduction

1. Polylactide (PLA) has received much attention in recent years due to its biodegradable properties, which offer important economic benefits.
   聚乳酸（PLA）由于其可生物降解的特性，近年来受到了广泛的关注，这提供了重要的经济效益。
2. PLA is a polymer obtained from corn and is produced by the polymerisation of lactide.
   PLA是从玉米获得的聚合物，并且通过丙交酯的聚合产生。
3. It has many possible uses in the biomedical field and has also been investigated as a potential engineering material.
   它在生物医学领域有许多可能的用途，也被研究作为一种潜在的工程材料。
4. However, it has been found to be too weak under impact to be used commercially.
   然而，已经发现其在冲击下太弱而不能商业使用。
5. One way to toughen polymers is to incorporate a layer of rubber particles and there has been extensive research regarding the rubber modification of PLA.
   增韧聚合物的一种方法是掺入一层橡胶颗粒，并且已经对PLA的橡胶改性进行了广泛的研究。
6. For example, Penney et al. showed that PLA composites could be prepared using blending techniques and more recently, Hillier established the toughness of such composites.
   例如，Penney et al.表明PLA复合材料可以使用共混技术制备，并且最近，Hillier建立了这种复合材料的韧性。
7. However, although the effect of the rubber particles on the mechanical properties of copolymer systems was demonstrated over two years ago, little attention has been paid to the selection of an appropriate rubber component.
   然而，尽管橡胶颗粒对共聚物体系的机械性能的影响在两年前就已得到证实，但很少注意选择合适的橡胶组分。
8. The present paper presents a set of criteria for selecting such a component.
   本文提出了一套标准，选择这样的组件。
9. On the basis of these criteria it then describes the preparation of a set of polymer blends using PLA and a hydrocarbon rubber (PI).
   在这些标准的基础上，然后描述了使用PLA和烃橡胶（PI）制备一组聚合物共混物。
10. This combination of two mechanistically distinct polymerisations formed a novel copolymer in which the incorporation of PI significantly increased flexibility.
    两种机械上不同的聚合的这种组合形成了一种新型的共聚物，其中PI的掺入显著增加了柔性。

1.2 Grammar and Writing Skills

1.2语法和写作技巧
This section deals with four language areas which are important in the Introduction:
本节涉及引言中重要的四个语言领域：
TENSE PAIRS
时态对
SIGNALLING LANGUAGE
信令语言
PASSIVE/ACTIVE USE
被动/主动使用
PARAGRAPHING
分段

1.2.1 Tense pairs

1.2.1时态对
Present Simple/Present Continuous
现在简单/现在连续
In order to use tenses correctly in the Introduction, you fi rst need to look at the diff erence between the way the Present Simple tense and the Present Continuous tense are used.
为了在引言中正确地使用时态，你首先需要看看现在进行时和现在进行时之间的不同之处。
Look at these two sentences:
看看这两句话：

(a) describes a permanent situation and (b) describes a temporary situation. Because of this, the Present Simple tense is used in science writing to state accepted facts and truths — but what qualifi es as an accepted fact or truth is oft en, surprisingly, your decision. Sometimes the writer considers that research fi ndings have the status of a fact; in that case, s/he can decide to state them in the Present Simple, usually followed by the appropriate research reference. Here is an example from the Introduction in Section 1.1:
(a)描述了永久性的情况，而（b）描述了临时性的情况。正因为如此，一般现在时态在科学写作中被用来陈述公认的事实和真理--但令人惊讶的是，什么是公认的事实或真理，往往是由你决定的。有时认为研究成果具有事实地位;在这种情况下，她/他可以决定在现在的简单陈述中陈述它们，通常后面是适当的研究参考。下面是1.1节引言中的一个例子：

5 One way to toughen polymers is to incorporate a layer of rubber particles and there has been extensive research regarding the rubber modification of PLA.
5增韧聚合物的一种方法是加入一层橡胶颗粒，并且已经对PLA的橡胶改性进行了广泛的研究。

Later on, in the Results section, you can even decide to state your own findings this way. Look at these two sentences which describe results: (a) We found that the pressure increased as the temperature rose, which indicated that temperature played a significant role in the process. (b) We found that the pressure increases as the temperature rises, which indicates that temperature plays a significant role in the process.
稍后，在结果部分，您甚至可以决定以这种方式陈述自己的发现。看看这两个描述结果的句子：（a）我们发现压力随温度的升高而增大，说明温度在此过程中起着重要作用。(b)我们发现压力随着温度的升高而增加，这表明温度在这个过程中起着重要的作用。
Which sentence is ‘stronger’? In (a), using the Past Simple tense means that your findings are linked only to your own research, and you do not claim your deductions should be considered as accepted or established facts, or even that another researcher will necessarily get the same results. In (b), using the Present Simple tense means that you believe your findings and deductions are strong enough to be considered as facts or truths. The Present Simple communicates this reliability and your readers will respond to your work accordingly. There will be more about this later, in the unit on Results.
哪个句子更“强”？在（a）中，使用一般过去时意味着你的发现只与你自己的研究有关，你不主张你的推论应该被认为是公认的或既定的事实，甚至不主张另一个研究者必然会得到同样的结果。在（B）中，使用一般现在时意味着你相信你的发现和推论足够有力，可以被认为是事实或真理。现在的简单传达这种可靠性和你的读者会回应你的工作相应的。这将是更多关于这一点后，在单位的结果.
Past Simple/Present Perfect
过去简单/现在完成
Another tense pair you need in the Introduction is the Past Simple tense and the Present Perfect tense. You will need both, and you need to know when and why to switch from one to the other. Look at these sentences:
你在引言中需要的另一对时态是一般过去时和现在完成时。您将需要两者，并且您需要知道何时以及为什么从一个切换到另一个。看看这些句子：

You probably learned the difference between (a) and (b) years ago: that one of the differences between Past Simple and Present Perfect is the ‘time’ of the verb, i.e. when it happened. The difference between (c) and (d) is harder to understand and more important for you as a writer of science research.
你可能在几年前就知道了（a）和（b）的区别：一般过去时和现在完成时的区别之一是动词的“时间”，即我就知道了（c）和（d）之间的区别很难理解，但对你作为一个科学研究的作者来说更重要。
In (c) and (d), ‘time’, i.e. when the verb happened, isn’t really what separates the two sentences; it’s possible that both (c) and (d) happened last month, this morning, or one nanosecond ago. What is important is that the event in (d) is considered more relevant to the situation now than the event in (c), which is why it is given in the Present Perfect. Why is this idea of relevance useful when you write an Introduction? Look at these sentences from the Introduction in Section 1.1:

在（c）和（d）中，“时间”，即当动词发生时，并不是分隔两个句子的地方有可能（c）和（d）都发生在上个月，今天早上，或者一纳秒之前。重要的是，（d）中的事件被认为比（c）中的事件与现在的情况更相关，这就是为什么它在现在完成时给出。为什么在你写引言时，这种相关性的想法是有用的？看看1.1节引言中的这些句子：

**For example, Penney et al. showed that PLA composites could be prepared using blending techniques and more recently, Hillier established the toughness of such composites. However, although the effect of the rubber particles on the mechanical properties of copolymer systems was demonstrated over two years ago, little attention has been paid to the selection of an appropriate rubber component. **

例如，Penney et al.研究表明，PLA复合材料可以使用共混技术制备，最近，Hillier建立了这种复合材料的韧性。然而，尽管橡胶颗粒对共聚物体系的机械性能的影响在两年多前被证明，很少注意选择合适的橡胶组分。

• Note: a little means ‘a small amount’, but little means ‘virtually none’.
  * 注：a little的意思是“少量”，但little的意思是“几乎没有”。

Where does the tense change? Why do you think the writer changes from the Past Simple to the Present Perfect? Could it be because this research article is NOW paying attention to the selection of an appropriate rubber component?

时态在哪里变化？你认为作者为什么要从过去的简单变成现在完成时？这是否是因为这篇研究文章现在正在关注选择合适的橡胶成分？

Now look at what happens if the writer forgets to change tense and continues in the Past Simple:

现在看看如果作者忘记改变时态而继续使用一般过去时会发生什么：

However, although the effect of the rubber particles on the mechanical properties of copolymer systems was demonstrated over two years ago, little attention was paid to the selection of an appropriate rubber component.

然而，尽管橡胶颗粒对共聚物体系的机械性能的影响在两年前就已得到证实，但很少注意选择合适的橡胶组分。
Suddenly, the sentence means that little attention was paid THEN, i.e. two years ago. Perhaps attention has been paid to this problem since then; perhaps the problem has even been solved! Tense changes are always meaningful, and they always signal a change in the function of the information — so don’t change tense randomly and make sure you remember to change tense when you should.
突然，这个句子意味着当时，也就是两年前，很少有人注意到。也许从那时起，这个问题就得到了关注;也许这个问题已经得到了解决！时态的变化总是有意义的，它们总是标志着信息功能的变化-所以不要随意改变时态，并确保你记得在应该改变时态的时候改变时态。
Now check what you have learned about tenses by looking carefully at the way the Past Simple and Present Perfect are used in the Introductions of your target articles. Look in particular at the way the Past Simple tense and the Present Perfect tense are used to refer to previous research.
现在，通过仔细观察你的目标文章的引言中一般过去时和现在完成时的使用方式，检查你所学到的关于时态的知识。特别注意过去一般时和现在完成时是如何被用来参考以前的研究的。

1.2.2 Signalling language

1.2.2信令语言
Sentence connection
句子连接
One of the most common errors in writing is failing to connect one sentence or idea to the next. Every time you end a sentence, your reader has no idea what the next sentence is going to do or say. As a result, the space between a full stop and the next capital letter is a dangerous space for you and your reader. Perhaps you stopped for ten minutes after a sentence, and during that time you thought about your work and your ideas developed. Perhaps you turned off your computer and went home. When you start typing again, if you don’t share the link between those sentences with your reader, you create a gap in the text which will cause problems.
写作中最常见的错误之一是未能将一个句子或想法与下一个连接起来。每次你结束一个句子，你的读者都不知道下一个句子要做什么或说什么。因此，句号和下一个大写字母之间的空格对你和你的读者来说都是危险的。也许你在说了一句话后停了十分钟，在这段时间里，你思考了你的工作，你的想法得到了发展。也许你关掉电脑回家了。当你再次开始输入时，如果你不与读者分享这些句子之间的链接，你就会在文本中创建一个间隙，这将导致问题。
One of your tasks as a writer is to make sure that gap is closed, so that your reader is carried carefully from one piece of information to the next. Connecting sentences and concepts is good for you too, as it forces you to develop your ideas logically.
作为一个作家，你的任务之一就是确保这个缺口是封闭的，这样你的读者就可以小心地从一条信息转到另一条信息。连接句子和概念对你也有好处，因为它迫使你逻辑地发展你的想法。
One way to connect sentences is to overlap, meaning to repeat something from the previous sentence:
连接句子的一种方法是重叠，意思是重复前一句的内容：
The pattern of inflammation during an asthma attack is different from that seen in stable asthma. In stable asthma the total number of inflammatory cells does not increase.
One way to toughen polymers is to incorporate a layer of rubber particles. As a result, there has been extensive research regarding the rubber modification of PLA.
哮喘发作期间的炎症模式与稳定期哮喘不同。在稳定型哮喘中，炎性细胞的总数不会增加。
使聚合物增韧的一种方法是加入一层橡胶颗粒。因此，对PLA的橡胶改性进行了广泛的研究。
Another way is to use a pronoun (it, they) or pro-form (this method, these systems) to glue the sentences together:
另一种方法是使用代词（it，they）或代词形式（this method，these systems）将句子粘合在一起：
Many researchers have suggested ways of reducing cost without affecting the quality of the image. These methods rely on data structures built during a preprocessing step.
On the basis of these criteria it then describes the preparation of a set of polymer blends using PLA and a hydrocarbon rubber (PI). Th is combination of two mechanistically distinct polymerisations formed a novel copolymer in which the incorporation of PI significantly increased flexibility.
许多研究人员提出了在不影响图像质量的情况下降低成本的方法。这些方法依赖于在预处理步骤期间构建的数据结构。
在这些标准的基础上，然后描述了使用PLA和烃橡胶（PI）的一组聚合物共混物的制备。这是两种不同的聚合机理的组合，形成了一种新的共聚物，其中PI的掺入显着增加了灵活性。
The third way is not to finish the sentence at all, but to join it to the next sentence with a semicolon or a relative clause (a ‘which’ clause). Joining sentences with a semicolon works well when two sentences are very closely related and one of them is quite short:
第三种方法是根本不结束句子，而是用一个连词或一个关系从句（一个“which”从句）将它连接到下一个句子。当两个句子非常密切相关，其中一个句子很短时，用一个小括号连接句子效果很好：
The procedure for testing whether components are operationally safe usually takes many hours; this means that tests are rarely repeated.
It has received much attention over the past few decades due to its biodegradable properties, which offer important economic benefits.
测试组件是否操作安全的程序通常需要数小时;这意味着测试很少重复。
在过去的几十年里，由于其可生物降解的特性，它受到了广泛的关注，这提供了重要的经济效益。
The fourth way is to use a signalling sentence connector to indicate the relationship between one sentence and the next, or one part of a sentence and the next. You know how useful sentence connectors are from your reading; when you see a word like therefore or however, you are able to process the next piece of information in the sentence correctly even if you don’t understand every word. This is because the sentence connector signals the function of the information in the sentence. The opposite is also true: when the writer does not signal the function of the information with a connector, it is harder for the reader to process the information. Even if the grammar is perfect and every word is correct, the reader still may not be sure what the information is doing (Is it a result of the previous sentence? An example? A cause?), and may interpret it differently from the way the writer intended.
第四种方式是使用指示句连接符来指示一个句子和下一个句子之间的关系，或者一个句子的一个部分和下一个句子之间的关系。从你的阅读中你知道句子连接符是多么有用；当你看到一个类似于so或然而的单词时，你能够正确地处理句子中的下一段信息，即使你不是每个单词都听懂了。这是因为句子连接符表示句子中信息的功能。相反的情况也是正确的：当写入者没有用连接器通知信息的功能时，阅读器就更难处理信息。即使语法是完美的，每个单词都是正确的，读者可能仍然不确定信息在做什么(它是前一句话的结果吗？举个例子？原因？)，并可能与作者的意图不同地解释它。
You already use words like therefore and however and one aim of this subsection is to make sure that you are using them correctly. Another aim is to expand your vocabulary of signalling words, because you can’t spend the rest of your writing life using only therefore and however! Here are some examples of signalling language arranged according to their function. It is not a long list because only those which are commonly used in science writing have been included.
你已经使用了像“因此”和“然而”这样的词，本小节的一个目的是确保你正确地使用它们。另一个目的是扩大你的词汇量的信号词，因为你不能花你的写作生活的其余部分只使用因此和然而！下面是一些根据功能排列的信号语言的例子。这不是一个很长的列表，因为只有那些在科学写作中常用的被包括在内。

• Be careful when you use since; it is also often used to mean ‘from that time’, so if there’s any possibility of confusion, choose a different connector.
• 使用since时要小心;它也经常用于表示“从那时起”，所以如果有任何混淆的可能性，请选择不同的连接符。
• All these connectors can be used at the start of a sentence, even because (Because the measuring instruments were inaccurate, the experiment was unsuccessful).
• 所有这些连接词都可以用在句子的开头，即使是因为（因为测量仪器不准确，实验不成功）。
  
• Don’t start sentences with so to communicate a result; it’s too informal.
• 不要用so开头来表达结果，这太不正式了。
• You can sometimes use then, for example in sentences like ‘If x then y’, but it won’t work in every sentence, which is why it has not been included in this list.
• 有时候你可以使用then，比如在“If x then y”这样的句子中，但它并不适用于每个句子，这就是为什么它没有被包括在这个列表中。
  
• on the contrary and conversely don’t fit into this category because they don’t only communicate difference; they communicate the fact that ‘exactly the opposite is true’, so you can’t use them in the sentence above (because vegetarians and meat eaters aren’t opposites, they’re just different). However, you could use them in the following sentence: Some experiments used uncalibrated instruments and succeeded; conversely, other experiments used carefully calibrated instruments and failed.
• 相反地和相反地不属于这一类，因为它们不仅传达了差异;它们传达了“恰恰相反才是真的”的事实，所以你不能在上面的句子中使用它们（因为素食者和肉食者不是对立的，他们只是不同）。然而，你可以在下面的句子中使用它们：一些实验使用未校准的仪器并成功;相反，其他实验使用仔细校准的仪器并失败。
• Be careful when you use while; it is also often used to mean ‘at that/the same time’, so if there’s any possibility of confusion, choose a different connector.
• 使用while时要小心;它也经常用于表示“在那个/同时”，所以如果有任何混淆的可能性，请选择不同的连接符。
  
• There are other connectors with the same meaning, such as still and anyway, but they are more informal.
• 还有其他具有相同含义的连接词，如still和anyway，但它们更非正式。
  
• besides has more or less the same meaning as the items in the list above, but it’s more powerful and is therefore better used in more persuasive contexts.
• besides与上面列表中的项目或多或少具有相同的含义，但它更强大，因此更好地用于更具说服力的上下文。
  Now check what you have learned by looking at the way sentences are connected in the Introductions of your target articles.
  现在，通过观察目标文章的引言中句子的连接方式来检查你学到了什么。

1.2.3 Passive/Active

1.2.3被动/主动
Students often ask whether they can use we in their research articles. In the Introduction you usually say what you will be doing or presenting in the research article. You can use we to refer to your research group or team, but do not use it to refer to people or humanity in general. If you are referring to people in general, it’s better to use a construction with It (It is known/ thought that…) rather than We know/think that… It is also common to use the passive instead of we, especially in the central ‘report’ section (was measured, was added, etc.).
学生们经常会问，是否可以在研究文章中使用 "我们"。在引言中，您通常会说您将在研究文章中做什么或介绍什么。您可以用 we 来指您的研究小组或团队，但不要用它来指一般人或人类。如果您指的是一般人，最好用 It（众所周知/认为......），而不是 We know/think that......（我们知道/认为.......）。
In a thesis, you are writing as an individual and you don’t have a research group or team. Since you cannot write your thesis using I, you will probably write in the passive. Use words like here and in this study to let your reader know when you are referring to your own work. You can also use a ‘dummy’ subject to take the place of I or we:
在论文中，你是作为一个个体写作的，你没有一个研究小组或团队。既然你不能用I来写你的论文，你可能会用被动语态。使用像这里和本研究中这样的词，让你的读者知道你指的是你自己的工作。你也可以用“dummy”主语来代替I或we：
This article describes an algorithm for clustering sequences into index classes.
The present paper presents a set of criteria for selecting such a component.
这篇文章描述了一个算法聚类序列到索引类。
本文件提出了一套标准，选择这样的组件。
The problem with using the passive in formal writing is that the agent (the person who performed the action of the verb) is oft en not mentioned in the sentence. In other words, we say that something was done or was identified but we don’t say ‘by me’ or ‘by other researchers’, so the reader may not know who did it or who identified it. Th is can cause confusion and for that reason it is sometimes clearer to use a dummy subject (Th is article/ the present paper) in the Introduction rather than the ‘agentless’ passive (x is presented). Now look at the way the passive and dummy subject are used in the Introductions of your target articles.
在正式写作中使用被动语态的问题是，施事（动词动作的执行者）通常在句子中没有提到。换句话说，我们说某件事被做了或被确认了，但我们不说“由我”或“由其他研究者”，所以读者可能不知道是谁做的或谁确认了它。这可能会引起混淆，因此有时在引言中使用虚拟主语（Th is article/ the present paper）比“无代理人”被动语态（x is presented）更清楚。现在看看被动和虚拟主语在目标文章的介绍中的使用方式。
PARAGRAPHING
例句
Why is paragraphing important?
为什么分段很重要？
Paragraphs are an important visual aid to effective reading and writing. Two common errors in paragraphing are clusters of short or single-sentence paragraphs, and paragraphs that are too long. Both errors will confuse readers and are signs of poorly-organised writing.
段落是有效阅读和写作的重要视觉辅助工具。分段中两个常见的错误是短段落或单句段落的集群，以及太长的段落。这两个错误都会让读者感到困惑，也是写作组织不良的标志。
To understand how paragraphing works, imagine that you have won a 24-hour trip to Paris. You have two options. Th e first option is to fly to Paris, get off the plane and walk around the city. If you take that option, a friend may ask you later if you saw the famous Louvre art gallery; you say: ‘Well, no, I got lost and spent hours walking around the industrial area by mistake.’ You show your mother the clothes you bought in Paris and she asks if you bought them in the famous Rue de la Paix shopping street, and you say, ‘No, I bought them near my hotel. I didn’t know where the big shopping area was.’ You begin to realise that you wasted a lot of time and missed many important things.
要理解分段是如何工作的，想象一下你赢得了一次去巴黎的24小时旅行。你有两个选择第一个选择是飞到巴黎，下了飞机，在城市里四处走走。如果你选择了这个选项，一个朋友可能会问你是否看到了著名的卢浮宫艺术画廊;你说：“嗯，没有，我迷路了，错误地在工业区走了几个小时。你给你妈妈看你在巴黎买的衣服，她问你是不是在著名的芸香买的，你说：“不是，我是在我住的酒店附近买的。我不知道大型购物区在哪里。你开始意识到你浪费了很多时间，错过了很多重要的事情。
The second option is to take a short helicopter ride over Paris before you leave the airport. It’s a difficult decision because you are impatient; you only have 24 hours and you don’t want to waste time, but you do it anyway. Th e helicopter flies over Paris for half an hour in a grid pattern, after which you begin your tour of Paris. You find a well-situated hotel, which you saw from the helicopter. You buy your clothes in the Rue de la Paix — which you saw from the helicopter. You visit the Louvre and you have lunch in one of the big parks near the centre … which you saw from the helicopter.
第二种选择是在离开机场之前乘坐直升机在巴黎上空进行短暂的飞行。这是一个困难的决定，因为你没有耐心;你只有24小时，你不想浪费时间，但你还是做了。直升机在巴黎上空以网格状飞行半小时，之后你就可以开始你的巴黎之旅了。你找到了一个位置很好的酒店，你从直升机上看到的。你在芸香街买衣服--你从直升机上看到的。你参观卢浮宫，在市中心附近的一个大公园吃午饭...你从直升机上看到的。
What is the connection between this and good paragraphing?
这和好的分段之间有什么联系？
Let’s bring that idea to the skills of reading and writing. If you read the last page of a murder mystery before you finish the book, the rest of the story is less exciting — but you may finish the book faster. Th is is because you don’t waste time wondering who the murderer is; you know it’s the husband, so whenever his name is mentioned you concentrate and read carefully, but you don’t bother to read the details about the other suspects. This enables you to read faster by giving you the confidence to ignore things which you know are not relevant.
让我们把这个想法带到阅读和写作的技巧上。如果你在读完一本谋杀之谜之前读了最后一页，故事的其余部分就不那么令人兴奋了--但你可能会更快地读完这本书。这是因为你不会浪费时间去想凶手是谁;你知道是丈夫，所以每当提到他的名字时，你都会集中精力仔细阅读，但你不会费心去阅读其他嫌疑人的细节。这使你能够更快地阅读，让你有信心忽略那些你知道不相关的东西。
The more you know about what you are reading, the faster and more effectively you read. So how can you find out about a long article or chapter before reading it? The answer is to skim it quickly before you begin to read. Like the helicopter ride over Paris, skimming is done before reading, not instead of reading. Your aim when you skim through a text is to find out quickly what it is about and where the various pieces of information are located so that you can read it faster and more confidently.
你对你正在阅读的东西了解得越多，你就读得越快，越有效。那么，在阅读一篇长文或一章之前，你怎么能找到它呢？答案是在你开始阅读之前快速浏览一下。就像坐直升机飞越巴黎一样，略读是在阅读之前完成的，而不是代替阅读。当你浏览一篇文章时，你的目标是快速找出它是关于什么的，以及各种信息的位置，这样你就可以更快，更自信地阅读它。
How do I skim efficiently and quickly?
如何快速有效地浏览网页？
Most of the instructions in the box on the next page tell you just to ‘look at’ or ‘check’ something. Skimming is a pre-reading technique and should be done very fast; if it takes more than a few minutes you’re not skimming, you’re reading.
下一页方框中的大多数说明都告诉你只需要“看”或“检查”一些东西。略读是一种阅读前的技巧，应该非常快地完成;如果花了几分钟以上，你就不是在略读，你就是在阅读。
Skimming may help me read, but how does it help me to write?
略读可以帮助我阅读，但它如何帮助我写作呢？
Look at number 6 in the box: LOOK QUICKLY AT THE FIRST SENTENCE OF EACH PARAGRAPH. A paragraph in academic writing often starts with a topic sentence, which gives the main idea of the paragraph, and tells the reader what the paragraph is about. The other sentences are related to this idea; they discuss it, describe it, define it in more detail, argue about it, give examples of it, rephrase it, etc. When the ‘topic’ or idea moves too far away from the first sentence, the writer usually begins a new paragraph.
请看方框中的第6条：快速看每段的第一句话。学术写作中的一个段落通常以主题句开始，它给出了段落的主要思想，并告诉读者段落是关于什么的。其他的句子与这个想法有关;他们讨论它，描述它，更详细地定义它，争论它，给予例子，重新措辞，等等。

1. READ THE TITLE and try to predict the type of information you expect to see阅读标题，并尝试预测您期望看到的信息类型
2. LOOK AT THE NAME OF THE AUTHOR What you know about the writer will help you predict and evaluate the content.看看作者的名字你对作者的了解将有助于你预测和评估文章的内容。
3. CHECK THE DATE and use it to help you assess the content.标注日期并使用它来帮助您评估内容。
4. READ THE ABSTRACT to find out what the researchers did and/or what they found.阅读摘要，了解研究人员做了什么和/或他们发现了什么。
5. LOOK QUICKLY AT THE FIRST PARAGRAPH without trying to understand all the words.快速看第一段，不要试图理解所有的单词。
6. LOOK QUICKLY AT THE FIRST SENTENCE OF EACH PARAGRAPH without trying to understand all the words.快速地看每一段的第一句话，不要试图理解所有的单词。
7. LOOK QUICKLY AT EACH FIGURE/TABLE AND READ ITS TITLE to try and fi nd out what type of visual data is included.快速查看每个图/表并阅读其标题，尝试找出包含的视觉数据类型。
8. READ THE LAST PARAGRAPH especially if it has a subtitle like ‘Summary’ or ‘Conclusion’.阅读最后一段，特别是如果它有一个像“总结”或“结论”的副标题

You can therefore get a good idea of the various topics covered in an article — or in a chapter of a book — by reading the first sentence of each paragraph. And because it is a conventional way of writing paragraphs, it is a safe way for you to write paragraphs too. The more aware you are of the way other writers structure paragraphs, the easier it will be for you to do it yourself.
因此，通过阅读每一段的第一句话，你可以很好地了解一篇文章或一本书的一章所涵盖的各种主题。因为这是一种传统的写段落的方式，所以它也是一种安全的写段落的方式。你越了解其他作者构建段落的方式，你就越容易自己去做。As you know, paragraphs are marked either by indentation (starting five spaces in) or by a double space between lines. Over the years, you have developed a very strong response to these visual signals. This means that each time you begin a new paragraph, this conditioned response in your brain prepares for a change or shift of some kind.
如你所知，段落是通过缩进（从五个空格开始）或行与行之间的双空格来标记的。多年来，你已经对这些视觉信号产生了非常强烈的反应。这意味着，每当你开始一个新段落时，你大脑中的这种条件反射就为某种变化或转变做好了准备。
Correct paragraphing is essential, but it is easy to get into poor paragraphing habits, either through laziness or carelessness. If you oft en write one-sentence paragraphs or your paragraphs seem to be very long or you’re not sure when to start a new paragraph, you are making writing harder for yourself. When you are planning your paper, write down each idea/concept that you want to talk about, checking that they are in a logical order and then listing what you want to say about each, using bullet points. Th is will help you create paragraphs that have a logical and coherent structure.
正确的分段是必不可少的，但很容易养成不良的分段习惯，要么是懒惰，要么是粗心。如果你经常写一句话的段落，或者你的段落看起来很长，或者你不确定什么时候开始一个新的段落，你正在为自己增加写作难度。当你在计划你的论文时，写下你想谈论的每个想法/概念，检查它们是否符合逻辑顺序，然后用要点列出你想说的每一个。这将帮助你创建具有逻辑和连贯结构的段落。

1.3 Writing Task: Building a model

1.3写作任务：建立模型

1.3.1 Building a model

1.3.1建立模型
You are now ready to begin building a model of Introductions by writing a short description of what the writer is doing in each sentence in the space provided. This may be hard, because it is the first time you are doing it, so read the guidelines below before you start. The Key is on the next page. Once you have tried to produce your own model you can use the Key to help you write this section of a research article when you eventually do it on your own.
你现在已经准备好开始建立一个介绍的模型，在提供的空白处写一个简短的描述，说明作者在每个句子中做了什么。这可能很难，因为这是你第一次这样做，所以在开始之前阅读下面的指导方针。钥匙在下一页。一旦你尝试创建自己的模型，你就可以使用Key来帮助你在最终独立完成时撰写研究文章的这一部分。
GUIDELINES: You should spend 30–45 minutes on this task. If you can’t think of a good description of the first sentence, choose an easier one, for example, Sentence 7, and start with that. Remember that your model is only useful if it can be transferred to other Introductions, so don’t include content words such as polymer or you won’t be able to use your model to generate Introductions in your own field.
指导原则：你应该花30-45分钟在这个任务上。如果你想不出一个好的描述第一句话，选择一个更容易的，例如，句子7，并开始。请记住，您的模型只有在可以转移到其他Introductions中时才有用，因此不要包含聚合物等内容词，否则您将无法使用您的模型在自己的领域中生成Introductions。
One way to find out what the writer is doing in a sentence — rather than what s/he is saying — is to imagine that your computer has accidentally deleted it. What is different for you as a reader when it disappears? If you press another key on the computer and the sentence comes back, how does that affect the way you respond to the information?
要想知道作者在一个句子里做了什么，而不是他/她在说什么，一个方法是想象你的电脑不小心删除了它。如果你按下电脑上的另一个键，句子又回来了，这对你对信息的反应有什么影响？
Another way to figure out what the writer is doing in a sentence is to look at the grammar and vocabulary clues. What is the tense of the main verb? What is that tense normally used for? Is it the same tense as in the previous sentence? If not, why has the writer changed the tense? What words has the writer chosen to use?
另一种弄清楚作者在句子中做了什么的方法是看语法和词汇线索。主要动词的时态是什么？这个时态通常用来做什么？这句话的时态和前一句是一样的吗？如果不是，为什么作者改变了时态？作者选用了哪些词语？
Don’t expect to produce a perfect model. You will modify your model when you look at the Key, and perhaps again when you compare it to the way Introductions work in your target articles.
不要指望创造一个完美的模型。当您查看Key时，您将修改您的模型，当您将其与目标文章中介绍的工作方式进行比较时，可能会再次修改模型。

1.3.2 Key

在句子1中，“聚乳酸（PLA）由于其可生物降解的特性，近年来受到了广泛关注，这提供了重要的经济效益。”确立了本课题研究的重要性。
If you wrote ‘introduces the topic’ for Sentence 1, it won’t really help when you come to write a real research article. How exactly do you ‘introduce’ a topic? You need to be more specific.
如果你在第一句中写了“介绍主题”，那么当你要写一篇真正的研究文章时，它就不会有什么帮助了。你到底是如何“介绍”一个话题的？你得说得更具体些。
Most research articles begin by indicating that the research fi eld or topic is useful or signifi cant. Th ey may focus on the quantity of research in this area, or how useful research in this area can be, or simply how important this research fi eld is. If you look at your target articles, you will probably fi nd something in the fi rst one or two sentences that establishes the signifi cance of the research. Phrases like much study in recent years or plays a major role are common here, and you’ll fi nd a list of useful vocabulary for this in Section 1.4.
大多数研究文章的开始都表明研究领域或主题是有用的或有意义的。他们可能会关注这个领域的研究数量，或者这个领域的研究有多有用，或者只是这个研究领域有多重要。如果你看你的目标文章，你可能会在第一个或两个句子中找到一些东西，建立了研究的意义。短语如much study in recent years或plays a major role在这里很常见，你会在1.4节找到有用的词汇表。
What if I don’t have the confi dence to say that my research is important?
如果我没有信心说我的研究很重要呢？
Most authors of research articles begin by establishing the signifi cance of their research; if you don’t, it can look as though your research is NOT signifi cant, so don’t be shy about stating why or how your fi eld is important or useful.
大多数研究文章的作者开始通过建立他们的研究的重要性;如果你不这样做，它可以看起来好像你的研究是不重要的，所以不要羞于说明为什么或如何你的领域是重要的或有用的。
What tense should I write in here?
我应该在这里写什么时态？
Phrases like much study in recent years or in the past fi ve years are normally followed by the Present Perfect tense (Much study in recent years has focused on…). Other ways of establishing signifi cance may use the Present Simple tense (There are substantial benefi ts to be gained from…).
近年来的大量研究或过去五年的研究等短语通常用现在完成时（近年来的大量研究集中在......）。其他表示意义的方式可以使用现在完成时（There are substantial benefi ts to be gained from...）。

在句子2中，“PLA是从玉米中获得的聚合物，并且通过丙交酯的聚合产生”。作者为读者提供了一般的背景资料。
Sentence 2 is in the Present Simple tense, which is used for accepted/ established facts (see Section 1.1). Research articles oft en begin with accepted or established facts. Th is ensures that the reader shares the same level of background information as the writer, and is therefore ready to read the article.
句子2是一般现在时，用于公认的事实（见1.1节）。研究性文章通常开始于公认的或确定的事实。这确保读者与作者共享相同级别的背景信息，因此准备好阅读文章。
So what kind of facts should I start with?
那么我应该从什么样的事实开始呢？
Th is depends on how wide your subject — and therefore your readership — is. If the subject of your research is very specifi c, then many of your readers will have a high level of background knowledge, and you can start with fairly specifi c information. If your paper is likely to attract a wider audience, then you should start with more general background information. Remember that your background facts may come from research (see Section 1.1), so don’t forget to include the research references where necessary.
这取决于你的主题有多广泛，因此你的读者群有多广泛。如果你的研究主题非常具体，那么你的许多读者都有很高的背景知识，你可以从相当具体的信息开始。如果你的论文有可能吸引更广泛的读者，那么你应该从更一般的背景信息开始。请记住，你的背景事实可能来自研究（见1.1节），所以不要忘记在必要的地方包括研究参考。
What if there are several background facts I want to start with, not just one? How do I know which one to begin with?
如果我想从几个背景事实开始，而不仅仅是一个呢？我怎么知道从哪一个开始开始？
Start with the most general one, the one that many of your readers will already know. Th is is a ‘meeting place’ fact, a place where all your readers can start together, aft er which you can move on to more specifi c information. Always show your readers the general picture before you examine the details: show them the wall before you examine the bricks! Also, don’t forget to close the gap between these sentences (see Section 1.2.2) so that your readers can move smoothly through the information.
从最一般的开始，你的许多读者都已经知道了。这是一个“聚会场所”的事实，一个所有读者可以一起开始的地方，之后你可以继续更具体的信息。在你研究细节之前，总是先向你的读者展示一个整体：在你研究砖块之前，先让他们看看墙！另外，不要忘记缩小这些句子之间的差距（见1.2.2节），这样你的读者就可以顺利地浏览信息。
Remember that the background facts to your research are very familiar to you and the people you work with, but they won’t be as familiar to all of your readers. Th erefore, if the article is to reach a wider audience you need to state background facts which seem obvious or well-known to you.
记住，你的研究的背景事实对你和你的同事来说是非常熟悉的，但对你的所有读者来说并不熟悉。因此，如果文章要达到更广泛的受众，你需要陈述对你来说显而易见或众所周知的背景事实。
I’m still not sure where to begin.
我还是不知道从哪里开始开始。
If you are still stuck for a fi rst sentence, look at your title. It is helpful to your readers if you defi ne the key words in your title — perhaps you can begin with a defi nition or a fact about one of those key words.
如果你仍然被第一句话卡住了，看看你的标题。如果你在标题中定义了关键词，这对你的读者是有帮助的--也许你可以开始用一个定义或一个关于这些关键词的事实。
Can’t I start by describing the problem I am hoping to solve?
我不能先描述一下我希望解决的问题吗？
You can, but most authors don’t, because it’s sometimes diffi cult to say exactly what the problem is until your readers have enough background information to understand it. It’s also very hard to limit yourself to one sentence about the problem you are hoping to solve, and before you know it, you’ve written down a lot of specifi c information which your readers aren’t ready for because you haven’t given them enough background.
你可以，但大多数作者不这样做，因为在读者有足够的背景信息来理解问题之前，有时很难准确地说出问题是什么。你也很难把自己限制在一句话中来描述你希望解决的问题，在你意识到之前，你写了很多具体的信息，读者还没有准备好，因为你没有给他们足够的背景知识。

在句子3中，“PLA在生物医学领域有许多可能的用途1，并且也被研究为潜在的工程材料2，3”作者做了与句子1和2相同的事情，但是以更具体/详细的方式，使用研究参考来支持背景事实和重要性的声明。
Don’t the research references mean that this is part of the literature review?
难道研究参考文献不意味着这是文献综述的一部分吗？
No, it’s still part of the background to general research in this area. Th e short literature review which is generally found in the Introduction of a research article comes later, and is more likely to deal with individual studies and their methods or results. In a thesis the literature review is much longer and may be a separate chapter.
不，它仍然是这一领域一般研究的背景的一部分。简短的文献综述通常出现在研究文章的引言中，并且更有可能涉及个别研究及其方法或结果。在一篇论文中，文献综述要长得多，可能是一个单独的章节。
So why does the author include references if it’s only the background?
那么，如果只是背景，作者为什么要包括参考文献呢？
For three reasons: First, because plagiarism (failing to give others the appropriate credit for their work) is unprofessional; second, referencing gives your reader the chance to fi nd and read the study mentioned.Th e third reason is that failing to provide a reference may indicate that you are not familiar with research in your area.
原因有三：首先，因为剽窃（不给给予他人适当的赞扬）是不专业的;其次，参考给你的读者机会找到并阅读所提到的研究。第三个原因是，没有提供参考可能表明你不熟悉你所在领域的研究。
Although Sentence 3 isn’t part of the literature review (which comes later in the Introduction) it includes a citation reference. Before you write a research paper, you collect a lot of references, quotations and ideas from journals and the Internet, many of which you will mention at some point in the paper. When you are writing the Introduction, you need to ask yourself three questions:
虽然第3句并不是文献综述的一部分（在后面的介绍中），但它包含了引用参考。在你写一篇研究论文之前，你从期刊和互联网上收集了大量的参考文献、引文和想法，其中许多你会在论文的某个地方提到。当你写引言的时候，你需要问自己三个问题：

1. Which of the research papers I have read should be mentioned somewhere in the Introduction? Th e selection of names and references in the Introduction is important, because they draw a research ‘map’ for the reader by indicating the key players in your field and the progress or achievements so far. These names and references give the reader a clear idea of where your research is located and how it is related to other work in the field.
   我读过的哪些研究论文应该在引言中提到？在引言中选择名字和参考文献是很重要的，因为它们为读者绘制了一幅研究“地图”，指出了你所在领域的主要参与者以及迄今为止的进展或成就。这些名称和参考文献给予读者一个清晰的概念，你的研究位于何处，以及它是如何与该领域的其他工作。
2. Which ones should be part of the background to the research (as in Sentence 3 above) and which ones should go in the literature review which comes later in the Introduction? If the findings are well-known and considered reliable enough to be presented as truths, you can present them in the Present Simple as part of the factual background to your paper (as in Sentence 3) with a research reference. Th e literature review, which describes recent and current research in your field, usually mentions authors by name, and the sentences are usually in the Simple Past or Present Perfect tense.
   哪些应该是研究背景的一部分（如上面的第3句），哪些应该在后面的引言中的文献综述中列出？如果研究结果是众所周知的，并且被认为足够可靠，可以作为真理呈现，你可以在现在简单中将它们作为你论文的事实背景的一部分（如第3句），并提供研究参考。文献综述描述了你所在领域最近和当前的研究，通常提到作者的名字，句子通常是一般过去时或现在完成时。
3. What order should I mention them in? Who comes first and who comes last? These questions about the literature review itself will be discussed after Sentence 6.
   我应该按什么顺序提到它们？谁先来谁后来？这些关于文献综述本身的问题将在第6句之后讨论。

在第4句中，作者描述了一般的问题领域或该领域目前的研究热点。
   Notice that the author is still not describing the specifi c problem which this research article will deal with; s/he is describing the current focus of the fi eld, a problem which many researchers in this fi eld are interested in and which leads to the specifi c problem which will be addressed in this article. Remember to keep this general description of the problem area or current research focus brief, or you will fi nd that you begin to give a specifi c description of what your research is trying to achieve, and it’s still too early in the Introduction for that.
   请注意，作者仍然没有描述这篇研究文章将处理的具体问题;他/她描述的是该领域目前的焦点，这是该领域许多研究人员感兴趣的问题，并导致本文将解决的具体问题。记住，对问题领域或当前研究焦点的概括性描述要简短，否则你会发现，你开始对你的研究试图实现的目标给予了具体描述，而在引言中这样做还为时过早。
   As you can see from Sentence 4, you may need a research reference when you describe the problem your paper will deal with; however, if it is a well-known problem (rather than a recent issue, as in Sentence 4), then it is not necessary to provide a reference.
   正如你从第4句中看到的，当你描述你的论文将要处理的问题时，你可能需要一个研究参考;但是，如果它是一个众所周知的问题（而不是最近的问题，如第4句），那么就没有必要提供参考。

在第5句“一种使聚合物增韧的方法是加入一层橡胶颗粒”中，作者提供了一般问题区域和文献综述之间的过渡。
   As a general rule, you should include references to previous or current research wherever it is useful, even in a sentence whose function is primarily to provide a transition. Make sure that the superscript reference number includes all and only the work referred to in the sentence (see the notes on Sentence 6 below for more about this).
   一般来说，你应该在有用的地方引用以前或现在的研究，即使是在一个主要功能是提供过渡的句子中。确保上标的参考编号包括所有且仅包括句子中提到的作品（更多信息请参见下面第6句的注释）。

在第6句中，“例如，Penney等人表明，可以使用共混技术6制备PLA复合材料，最近，Hillier 7确定了这种复合材料的韧性。”作者简要介绍了该领域的重点研究项目。
   You can’t just ‘pour’ the literature review onto the page in any order; you should arrange your references and studies so that the reader is able to process them in a logical way. Here are three common options:
   你不能只是把文献综述以任何顺序“倾倒”在页面上;你应该安排你的参考文献和研究，以便读者能够以合乎逻辑的方式处理它们。以下是三种常见的选择：

• chronological: Deal with the research in chronological order. This may be appropriate, for example, if the development of your field is related to political decisions.
  按时间顺序：按时间顺序处理研究。这可能是合适的，例如，如果你的领域的发展与政治决策有关。
• different approaches/theories/models: Group projects or studies according to their approach or methodology. Grouping similar projects together helps you avoid the ‘tennis match’ effect where you go backwards and forwards, beginning each sentence in the literature review with However or On the other hand!
  不同的方法/理论/模型：根据他们的方法或方法对项目或研究进行分组。把类似的项目放在一起，可以帮助你避免“网球比赛”的效果，在这种情况下，你会前后颠倒，在文献综述的每一句话的开头都用“然而”或“另一方面”！
• general/specific: Start with general research in the field and gradually move to research that is closer to your own.
  一般/具体：从该领域的一般研究开始，逐渐转向更接近你自己的研究。
  When should a research reference come in the middle of the sentence?
  什么时候应该在句子中间出现研究参考文献？
  When it is necessary to avoid confusion, for example if you are referring to more than one study in a sentence or if the citation reference only refers to part of your sentence. You can see examples of this in Sentences 6 and 7.
  当有必要避免混淆时，例如，如果您在一个句子中引用多项研究，或者引用参考仅指您句子的一部分。你可以在第6和第7句中看到这样的例子。

在句子7中，“然而，尽管橡胶颗粒对共聚物体系的机械性能的影响在两年前就得到了证明，但很少有人注意选择合适的橡胶组分。”作者描述了研究中的一个空白。
  This is where you begin to introduce the purpose of your paper and the specific problem you will deal with, and in order to do this it is necessary to create a research space. You can do this either by describing a problem in the previous research or by indicating that there is a gap in the research. It is conventional to introduce it with a signalling connector such as However or Although. In professional writing it is unusual to put it in the form of a question; instead you can state it as a prediction or a hypothesis which you intend to test.
  这是你开始介绍你的论文的目的和你将处理的具体问题的地方，为了做到这一点，有必要创造一个研究空间。你可以通过描述以前研究中的问题或指出研究中存在的差距来做到这一点。通常用信号连接符，如However或Although来引入它。在专业写作中，通常不以问题的形式提出问题;相反，你可以把它陈述为一个预测或假设，你打算测试。
  Don’t be shy about pointing out the problems in previous research. In the first place it may be necessary in order to explain why you have done your study, and in the second place, the language used here is usually respectful and impersonal, and is therefore not considered offensive. We will look at the politeness aspect of this language in the vocabulary section at the end of the unit.
  不要羞于指出以前研究中的问题。首先，它可能是必要的，以解释为什么你做了你的研究，其次，这里使用的语言通常是尊重和客观的，因此不被认为是冒犯。我们将在本单元最后的词汇部分研究这种语言的礼貌方面。
  You may need more background information at this stage (for example, you may need to give details of the properties of the material which you have chosen to investigate, or describe the specific part of the device which you plan to improve). Research writing requires far more background information than you have previously given in your undergraduate writing, and it is better to offer slightly too much background information than too little.
  在此阶段，您可能需要更多的背景信息（例如，您可能需要给予您选择研究的材料的特性的详细信息，或描述您计划改进的设备的特定部分）。研究性写作需要的背景信息比你以前在本科写作中提供的要多得多，提供稍微多一点的背景信息总比提供太少好。

在句子8中，本论文提出了一套选择这种组件的标准。作者描述了论文本身。
  At this stage you move to the present work. You can describe it, say what its purpose or focus is, give its structure or a combination of these. Check Section 1.2.3 to see whether to write these sentences in the active or the passive.
  在这一阶段，你进入了目前的工作。你可以描述它，说出它的目的或重点是什么，给予它的结构或这些的组合。检查1.2.3节，看看这些句子是用主动语态还是被动语态。
  You normally use the Present Simple tense to describe the work itself (This paper is organised as follows or This study focuses on) and the Past Simple tense to talk about the aim of the work (The aim of this project was…), because in ‘real time’, the aim occurred before the work was carried out. It is also possible to state the aim in the Present Simple (The aim of this work is…). This is especially true in cases where the aim is only partially achieved in the paper you are submitting and the rest of the work will be done and reported on at a later stage.
  你通常用一般现在时来描述工作本身（本文的组织如下或本研究的重点是），用一般过去时来谈论工作的目的（本项目的目的是.），因为在“真实的时间”中，目的发生在工作进行之前。也可以在现在简单句中陈述目的（本作品的目的是.）。如果你提交的论文只是部分实现了目标，而其余的工作将在稍后阶段完成并报告，这一点尤其如此。

在句子9中，“基于这些标准，然后描述了使用PLA和烃橡胶（PI）制备一组聚合物共混物。”作者详细介绍了该文件中报告的方法。

在句子10中，“两种不同的聚合机理的这种组合形成了一种新的共聚物，其中PI的引入显著增加了柔性”。笔者公布调查结果。
  Although you can give information about your methodology or findings in the Introduction, be careful not to go into too much detail at this point or you will find that you have nothing to write about in the Methodology or Results sections.
  虽然你可以在引言中给予关于你的方法或发现的信息，但注意不要在这一点上讲得太详细，否则你会发现在方法或结果部分你没有什么可写的。
  Look at the way the writer begins Sentences 9 and 10. In each case the information is joined to the previous sentence with a pro-form (On the basis of these criteria in Sentence 9 and This combination in Sentence 10).
  看作者如何开始第9和第10句。在每一种情况下，信息都用一个前形式与前一句相连（基于句子9中的这些标准和句子10中的这种组合）。

1.3.3 The model

1.3.3模型
Here are the sentence descriptions we have collected:
以下是我们收集的句子描述：
In Sentence 1 the writer establishes the importance of this research topic.
在第一句中，作者确立了这个研究课题的重要性。
In Sentence 2 the writer provides general background information.
在第2句中，作者提供了一般的背景信息。
In Sentence 3 the writer does the same as in Sentences 1 and 2, but in a more specific/detailed way.
在第3句中，作者做了与第1和第2句相同的事情，但是用了更具体/详细的方式。
In Sentence 4 the writer describes the general problem area or the current research focus of the field.
在第4句中，作者描述了该领域的一般问题领域或当前的研究热点。
In Sentence 5 the writer provides a transition between the general problem area and the literature review.
在第5句中，作者提供了一般问题领域和文献综述之间的过渡。
In Sentence 6 the writer provides a brief overview of key research projects in this area.
在第6句中，作者简要概述了这一领域的主要研究项目。
In Sentence 7 the writer describes a gap in the research.
在第7句中，作者描述了研究中的一个空白。
In Sentence 8 the writer describes the paper itself.
在第8句中，作者描述了论文本身。
In Sentence 9 the writer gives details about the methodology reported in the paper.
在第9句中，作者详细介绍了论文中报告的方法。
In Sentence 10 the writer announces the findings.
在第10句中，作者宣布了调查结果。
We can streamline these so that our model has FOUR basic components:
我们可以简化这些，使我们的模型有四个基本组成部分：

1)确定你所在领域的重要性提供背景事实/信息（可能来自研究）定义标题/关键词中的术语存在的问题领域/当前的研究重点
2)以往和/或目前的研究和贡献
3)找出研究中的差距描述您将解决的问题提出待测试的预测
4)描述本文件

1.3.4 Testing the Model

1.3.4测试模型
The next step is to look at the way this model works in a real Introduction. Here are some full-length Introductions from real research articles. Read them through, and mark the model components (1, 2, 3 or 4) wherever you think you see them. For example, if you think the first sentence of the Introduction corresponds to number 1 in our model, write 1 aft er it, etc.
下一步是在一个真实的介绍中看看这个模型是如何工作的。这里有一些来自真实的研究文章的完整介绍。通读一遍，并在您认为看到的任何地方标记模型组件（1、2、3或4）。例如，如果你认为引言的第一句对应于我们模型中的数字1，那么在后面写上1，等等。

The height of biomolecules measured with the atomic force microscope depends on electrostatic interactions
用原子力显微镜测量生物分子的高度取决于静电相互作用
INTRODUCTION
导言
Because the atomic force microscope (AFM) (Binnig et al., 1986) makes it possible to image surfaces in liquids, it has become an important tool for studying biological samples (Drake et al., 1989). Recent reports document the observation of protein assemblies under physiological conditions at nanometer resolution (Butt et al., 1990; Hoh et al., 1991; Karrasch et al., 1993, 1994; Yang et al., 1993, Schabert and Engel, 1994; Mou et al., 1995b; Muller et al., 1995b, 1996b). As demonstrated on solids under vacuum conditions (Sugawara et al., 1995) and in liquid (Ohnesorge and Binnig, 1993), the AFM also makes it possible to measure sample heights with subangstrom accuracy. However, the heights of native biological samples measured with the AFM in aqueous solution vary signifi cantly, and may diff er from values estimated with other methods (Butt et al., 1991; Apell et al., 1993; Muller et al., 1995b, 1996a; Schabert and Rabe, 1996). For example, the height reported for single purple membranes ranges from 5.1 ± 0 nm to 11.0 ± 3.4 nm (see Table 1). Height measurements on actin fi laments (Fritz et al., 1995b), bacteriophage ø29 connectors (Muller et al., 1997c), cholera toxin (Yang et al., 1994; Mou et al., 1995b), DNA (Hansma et al., 1995; Mou et al., 1995a; Wyman et al., 1995), gap junctions (Hoh et al., 1993), GroEL (Mou et al., 1996), hexagonally packed intermediate layer (HPI) (Karrasch et al., 1993; Muller et al., 1996a; Schabert and Rabe, 1996), lipid bilayers (Mou et al., 1994, 1995b; Radler et al., 1994), and microtubules (Fritz et al., 1995a) exhibit a similar variability. Height anomalies of soft surfaces have previously been studied and attributed to the mechanical properties of the sample (Weisenhorn et al., 1992; Radmacher et al., 1993, 1995; Hoh and Schoenenberger, 1994). However thin samples such as two-dimensional protein arrays or biological membranes adsorbed to a solid support are not suffi ciently compressible to explain such large height variation.
因为原子力显微镜（AFM）（Binnig等人，1986）使得对液体中的表面成像成为可能，它已经成为研究生物样品的重要工具（Drake等人，1989年）。最近的报道记录了在生理条件下以纳米分辨率观察蛋白质组装体（Butt等人，1990; Hoh等人，1991; Karrasch等人，1993，1994; Yang等人，1993，Schabert和Engel，1994; Mou等人，1995 b; Muller等人，1995 b，1996 b）。如在真空条件下对固体所证明的（Sugawara等人，1995）和在液体中（Ohnesorge和Binnig，1993），AFM还可以测量亚埃精度的样品高度。然而，在水溶液中用AFM测量的天然生物样品的高度显著变化，并且可能不同于用其他方法估计的值（Butt等人，1991; Apell等人，1993; Muller等人，1995 b，1996 a; Schabert and Rabe，1996）。例如，单个紫色膜报告的高度范围为5.1 ± 0 nm至11.0 ± 3.4 nm（见表1）。对肌动蛋白纤维的高度测量（Fritz等人，1995 b），噬菌体ø 29连接器（Muller等人，1997 c）、霍乱毒素（Yang等，1994; Mou等人，1995 b）、DNA（Hansma et al.，1995; Mou等人，1995 a; Wyman等人，1995）、间隙连接（Hoh等人，1993）、GroEL（Mou等人，1996）、六方堆积中间层（HPI）（Karrasch等人，1993; Muller等人，1996 a; Schabert和Rabe，1996）、脂质双层（Mou等人，1994，1995 b; Radler等人，1994）和微管（Fritz等人，1995 a）表现出类似的变化。先前已经研究了软表面的高度异常，并将其归因于样品的机械性能（Weisenhorn等人，1992; Radmacher等人，1993，1995; Hoh和Schoenenberger，1994）。然而，吸附到固体支持物上的薄样品如二维蛋白质阵列或生物膜不足以压缩以解释如此大的高度变化。
Here we demonstrate that electrostatic interactions between the AFM tip and the sample (Butt, 1991a, b) infl uence the measured height of a biological structure adsorbed to a solid support in buff er solution. Th e DLVO (Derjaguin, Landau, Verwey, Overbeek) theory (Israelachvili, 1991) is used to describe the electrostatic repulsion and van der Waals attraction acting between tip and sample (Butt et al., 1995). Experimental results and calculations show that the electrostatic double-layer forces can be eliminated by adjusting the electrolyte concentration (Butt, 1992a, b), providing conditions for correct height measurements with the AFM. In addition, the observed height dependence of the biological structure on electrolyte concentration allows its surface charge density to be estimated.
在这里，我们证明了AFM针尖和样品之间的静电相互作用（Butt，1991 a，b）影响吸附到缓冲溶液中的固体支持物上的生物结构的测量高度。DLVO（Derjaguin，朗道，Verwey，Overbeek）理论（Israelachvili，1991）用于描述作用在尖端和样品之间的静电排斥和货车德瓦尔斯吸引（Butt等人，1995年）。实验结果和计算表明，静电双电层力可以通过调节电解质浓度来消除（Butt，1992 a，b），为AFM正确测量高度提供了条件。此外，所观察到的高度依赖性的生物结构上的电解质浓度允许其表面电荷密度进行估计。

Optimal location discrimination of two multipartite pure states
两个多体纯态的最佳位置判别
INTRODUCTION
导言
Entanglement lies at the heart of many aspects of quantum information theory and it is therefore desirable to understand its structure as well as possible. One attempt to improve our understanding of entanglement is the study of our ability to perform information theoretic tasks locally on non-local states, such as the local implementation of non-local quantum gates [2], telecloning [3], the remote manipulation and preparation of quantum states [4] or the recently studied question of the local discrimination of non-local states by a variety of authors. In [1] it was shown that any two orthogonal pure states can be perfectly discriminated locally, whereas in [5] examples of two orthogonal mixed states were presented which cannot be distinguished perfectly locally. Another surprising development is that there exist bases of product orthogonal pure states which cannot be locally reliably discriminated, despite the fact that each state in the basis contains no entanglement [6]. Here we discuss the issue of discriminating two non-orthogonal pure states locally, and show that in this regime the optimal global procedure can be achieved.
纠缠是量子信息理论许多方面的核心，因此希望尽可能好地理解它的结构。提高我们对纠缠的理解的一个尝试是研究我们在非局域态上本地执行信息理论任务的能力，例如非局域量子门的本地实现[2]，远程克隆[3]，量子态的远程操纵和制备[4]或最近由各种作者研究的非局域态的本地鉴别问题。文献[1]证明了任意两个正交纯态都可以在局域上完全区分，而文献[5]给出了两个正交混合态的例子，它们不能在局域上完全区分。另一个令人惊讶的发展是，存在不能局部可靠地区分的乘积正交纯态的基，尽管基中的每个态不包含纠缠[6]。在这里，我们讨论的问题，区分两个非正交的纯态的本地，并表明，在这种制度的最佳整体程序可以实现。

Inert COD production in a membrane anaerobic reactor treating brewery wastewater
膜厌氧反应器处理啤酒废水的惰性COD产生
INTRODUCTION
导言
Th e chemical characterization of wastewaters is commonly undertaken to determine their biological treatability, load on an existing treatment system, or compliance with the fi nal discharge standards. In each case, one of the most important parameters to be measured is the chemical oxygen demand (COD). In general, the COD value of a wastewater mainly represents the biodegradable and non-biodegradable organic components, although inorganic compounds may be signifi cant in certain cases. In biological treatment systems, the biodegradable fraction of wastewater can be removed eff ectively, but its non-biodegradable fraction passes through the system unchanged. In addition to this, a signifi cant amount of soluble microbial products may be produced by microorganisms within the treatment systems. Some of these will be resistant to biological degradation and will appear in reactor effl uents. Th e factors that aff ect effl uent quality and overall organic matter removal in biological treatment systems are, therefore, the presence of both the inert COD fraction in the infl uent wastewater and the soluble microbial products which are produced during biological treatment. Although their concentrations may have few practical implications in the treatment of low strength wastewaters, they may have relatively greater signifi cance in the treatment of medium-high strength industrial wastewaters.
废水的化学表征通常用于确定其生物可处理性、现有处理系统的负荷或最终排放标准的符合性。在每种情况下，要测量的最重要的参数之一是化学需氧量（COD）。通常，废水的COD值主要代表可生物降解和不可生物降解的有机组分，尽管在某些情况下无机化合物可能是重要的。在生物处理系统中，废水中可生物降解的部分可以被有效地去除，但其不可生物降解的部分通过系统不变。除此之外，显著量的可溶性微生物产物可由处理系统内的微生物产生。其中一些将抵抗生物降解，并将出现在反应堆流出物中。因此，影响生物处理系统中出水质量和总有机物去除的因素是进水中惰性COD部分和生物处理过程中产生的可溶性微生物产物两者的存在。虽然它们的浓度在低浓度废水的处理中可能没有实际意义，但它们在中高浓度工业废水的处理中可能具有相对较大的意义。
There is extensive literature on the determination of inert COD fractions in industrial wastewaters under aerobic conditions (Chudoba, 1985; Ekama et al., 1986; Rittman et al., 1987; Henze et al., 1987; Orhon et al., 1989; Germirli et al., 1991). However, little has been reported under anaerobic conditions (Germili et al., 1998; Ince et al., 1998). Since medium-high strength industrial wastewaters have been treated efficiently by anaerobic treatment systems, both the inert COD fraction of wastewaters under anaerobic conditions and the soluble microbial products produced within the anaerobic treatment systems should be investigated.
有大量关于在需氧条件下测定工业废水中的惰性COD级分的文献（Chudoba，1985; Ekama等人，1986; Rittman等人，1987; Henze等人，1987; Orhon等人，1989; Germirli等人，1991年）。然而，在厌氧条件下几乎没有报道（Germili等人，1998;因斯等人，1998年）。由于中高浓度工业废水已被厌氧处理系统有效地处理，在厌氧条件下废水的惰性COD部分和厌氧处理系统内产生的可溶性微生物产物都应进行研究。
A novel anaerobic reactor system, crossflow ultrafiltration membrane anaerobic reactor (CUMAR) has previously shown great potential for retaining high biomass levels and high biological activity within a fully functioning anaerobic digester (Ince et al., 1993, 1994, 1995a). Since the CUMAR system can be operated at high organic loading rates, the quantification of its efficiency under varying loading rates would be of considerable interest, particularly with regard to the nature and quantity of soluble COD produced in the reactor effluent under various operating conditions.
一种新的厌氧反应器系统，错流超滤膜厌氧反应器（CUMAR）先前已经显示出在全功能厌氧消化器内保持高生物量水平和高生物活性的巨大潜力（因斯等人，1993年、1994年、1995年a）。由于CUMAR系统可以在高有机负荷率下操作，因此在不同负荷率下其效率的量化将是相当感兴趣的，特别是关于在各种操作条件下反应器流出物中产生的可溶性COD的性质和量。
In this study, formation of soluble microbial products within a 120:1 [is this correct? Should it be 120:1?] pilot-scale CUMAR system treating brewery wastewater will, therefore, be discussed in relation to reactor operating conditions.
在这项研究中，可溶性微生物产物的形成在120：1之内[这是正确的吗？应该是120：1吗？中试规模CUMAR系统处理啤酒废水，因此，将讨论有关反应器的操作条件。

Organic vapour phase deposition: a new method for the growth of organic thin fi lms with large optical non-linearities
有机气相沉积：一种生长大光学非线性有机薄膜的新方法
INTRODUCTION
导言
There is considerable interest in organic materials with large second-order hyperpolarizabilities for use in non-linear optical (NLO) devices such as modulators and frequency doublers [1]. To achieve a high figure of merit for such NLP devices requires a material with a non-centrosymmetric bulk structure and low dielectric constant.
具有大的二阶超极化率的有机材料用于非线性光学（NLO）器件如调制器和倍频器[1]具有相当大的兴趣。为了实现这种NLP器件的高品质因数，需要具有非中心对称体结构和低介电常数的材料。
To this end, NLP-active chromophores are traditionally incorporated into a polymer matrix and electrically poled to achieve the necessary bulk symmetry. However, such materials are limited by their low glass transition temperatures and poor stabilities at elevated temperature.
为此，NLP活性发色团传统上被并入聚合物基质中并被电极化以实现必要的体对称性。然而，此类材料受限于它们的低玻璃化转变温度和在升高的温度下差的稳定性。

Recently, single crystals of organic and organometallic salts [2–4] have been shown to possess extremely large second-order (x(2)) NLP eff ects leading to a high second harmonic generation (SHG) effi ciency. Th e naturally non-centrosymmetric crystal structures of these compounds obviates the need for external poling. Furthermore, these salts have a high optical damage threshold and suffi cient stability with respect to temperature to withstand many conventional semiconductor fabrication processes. In particular, highly pure single crystals of the salt, 4′-dimethylamino-N-methyl-4-stilbazolium tosylate (DAST) [2], have been shown to have a value of x(2) at least 103 times greater than that of urea due to dipole alignment of the cation and anion constituents of the DAST structure. To illustrate this alignment, the DAST bulk crystal structure is shown in the inset of Fig. 1.
最近，有机盐和有机金属盐的单晶[2-4]已被证明具有极大的二阶（x（2））NLP效应，导致高的二次谐波产生（SHG）效率。这些化合物的天然非中心对称晶体结构避免了外部极化的需要。此外，这些盐具有高的光学损伤阈值和相对于温度的足够稳定性，以承受许多常规的半导体制造工艺。特别是，由于DAST结构的阳离子和阴离子成分的偶极排列，高纯度的盐单晶，4′-二甲基氨基-N-甲基-4-芪苯磺酸盐（DAST）[2]，已被证明具有至少103倍于尿素的x（2）值。为了说明这种对准，DAST块体晶体结构在图1的插图中示出。
For many applications such as waveguide devices, it is desirable to grow NLO materials into optical quality thin fi lms. Although thermal evaporation in a high vacuum environment has been used to grow thin fi lms of many organic [5–7] and inorganic materials, the technique is not always applicable to highly polar molecules [8] or organic salts.
对于诸如波导器件的许多应用，期望将NLO材料生长成光学质量的薄膜。虽然在高真空环境中的热蒸发已被用于生长许多有机[5-7]和无机材料的薄膜，但该技术并不总是适用于高极性分子[8]或有机盐。
For example, when heated in vacuum, DAST decomposes before vaporization. Although in situ reactions of multicomponent organic molecules to synthesize polymer fi lms previously has been demonstrated using vacuum techniques as physical vapour deposition or vapour deposition polymerization [9], attempts in our own laboratory at double-source co-evaporation of DAST neutral precursors 4′-dimethylamino-4-stilbazole (DAS) and methyl p-toluenesulfonate (Methyltosylate, MT) to form DAST have been unsuccessful, due in part to the radically diff erent vapour pressures of DAS and MT, which leads to highly non-stoichiometric growth.
例如，当在真空中加热时，DAST在蒸发之前分解。虽然多组分有机分子合成聚合物薄膜的原位反应以前已被证明使用真空技术作为物理气相沉积或气相沉积聚合[9]，但在我们自己的实验室中，DAST中性前体4′-二甲氨基-4-芪唑（DAS）和对甲苯磺酸甲酯的双源共蒸发的尝试在一些实施方案中，用对甲苯磺酸甲酯（Methyltosylate，MT）形成DAST的方法是不成功的，部分原因是DAS和MT的蒸气压完全不同，这导致高度非化学计量的生长。
In contrast, atmospheric or low pressure (eg milliTorr) vapour phase epitaxy (VPE) has been used to grow epitaxial thin fi lms of many III-V compound semiconductors, such as InP and GaAs, where there is a large diff erence in the vapour pressures of the group III and group V atomic constituents [10]. Th is method was recently extended to allow the growth of III-V and II-VI semiconductors from volatile organic precursors [11]. Here, a high vapour pressure compound (typically a metal halide or a metallorganic) of each respective metal is carried independently, via a carrier gas, to a high temperature reaction zone. In this zone, the compounds are deposited onto a heated substrate where they thermally decompose and react to yield the desired III-V compound. Th e excess reactants and reaction products are then exhausted from the system via a scrubber.
相比之下，大气压或低压（例如毫托）气相外延（VPE）已用于生长许多III-V族化合物半导体（如InP和GaAs）的外延薄膜，其中III族和V族原子成分的蒸气压存在很大差异[10]。这种方法最近被扩展到允许从挥发性有机前体生长III-V族和II-VI族半导体[11]。在此，每种相应金属的高蒸气压化合物（通常为金属卤化物或金属有机物）经由载气独立地被运送到高温反应区。在该区域中，化合物被沉积到加热的基底上，在那里它们热分解并反应以产生所需的III-V族化合物。然后，过量的反应物和反应产物通过洗涤器从系统中排出。
In this paper we apply the techniques of VPE to grow fi lms of DAST by the reaction of two volatile organic materials in a hot-wall, atmospheric pressure reactor. By nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analysis, we fi nd that the stoichiometry of polycrystalline DAST fi lms is >95% pure (limited by instrumental sensitivity). Using X-ray diff raction and other analytical techniques, we observe a signifi cant dependence of fi lm quality, such as ordering and crystallite size, on the substrate composition and other deposition conditions used for growth, suggesting that it may be possible to generate optical quality thin fi lms of DAST and similar organic salts and compounds by OVPD using suitable substrates. To our knowledge, this is the fi rst demonstration of the deposition of ordered thin fi lms of a highly non-linear optically active organic salt using atmospheric vapour phase techniques.
本文采用气相外延技术，在常压热壁反应器中，通过两种挥发性有机物的反应，制备了DAST薄膜。通过核磁共振（NMR）分析，我们发现多晶DAST膜的化学计量比大于95%（受仪器灵敏度的限制）。使用X射线衍射和其他分析技术，我们观察到薄膜质量，如有序性和微晶尺寸，对衬底成分和用于生长的其他沉积条件的显著依赖性，这表明使用合适的衬底通过OVPD可以生成DAST和类似有机盐和化合物的光学质量薄膜。据我们所知，这是第一次使用大气气相技术沉积高度非线性光学活性有机盐的有序薄膜。

Limitations of charge-transfer models for mixed-conducting oxygen electrodes
混合导电氧电极电荷转移模型的局限性
INTRODUCTION
导言
Traditionally, electrochemistry is concerned with charge-transfer reactions occurring across a 2-dimensional interface. Indeed, at any macroscopic two-phase boundary, the magnitude, direction and driving force for current density can be described relatively unambiguously. As early as 1933 [1], workers began introducing the concept of a ‘three-phase boundary’ (solid/liquid/gas) in order to allow for direct involvement of gas-phase species at an electrochemical interface. However, since matter cannot pass through a truly one-dimensional interface among three phases, concepts of ‘interfacial area’, ‘current density’, and ‘overpotential’ at a three-phase boundary lack clear defi nition. For example, where exactly is the current fl owing from/to, and what is the local fl ux density? Also, if we defi ne overpotential in terms of thermodynamic potentials of species outside the interfacial region, what species and region are we talking about? Although the threephase boundary concept may serve as a useful abstraction of the overall electrode reaction, it does not address these mechanistic questions.
传统上，电化学涉及发生在二维界面上的电荷转移反应。事实上，在任何宏观两相边界，电流密度的大小，方向和驱动力可以相对明确地描述。早在1933年[1]，工作人员就开始引入“三相边界”（固/液/气）的概念，以允许气相物质直接参与电化学界面。然而，由于物质不能通过三相之间的真正一维界面，因此三相边界处的“界面面积”、“电流密度”和“超电势”的概念缺乏明确的定义。例如，电流从哪里流出/流向哪里，以及局部电流密度是多少？同样，如果我们用界面区域外的热力学势来定义超势，我们讨论的是什么样的物种和区域？虽然三相边界的概念可以作为一个有用的抽象的整体电极反应，它不解决这些机械问题。
Workers studying gas-diff usion electrodes in the mid1960s recognized the limitations of the three-phase boundary concept [2, 3]. As an alternative, they began to break down the electrode reaction into individual steps, some that involve chargetransfer across a two-dimensional interface, and some that involve dissolution and diff usion of molecular species in three dimensions or across a chemical interface. Th ese and subsequent studies have demonstrated that electrodes with i-V characteristics indicative of charge-transfer limitations (eg. Tafel behaviour) can, in fact, be limited by steps that do not themselves involve chargetransfer [4]. Although the solid-state literature has held on to the three-phase boundary concept more tightly than the aqueous or polymer literature, few examples remain today or solid-state electrochemical reactions that are not partially limited by solidstate reaction and diff usion processes.
在20世纪60年代中期，研究气体微分电极的工作人员认识到三相边界概念的局限性[2，3]。作为替代方案，他们开始将电极反应分解为单个步骤，一些涉及二维界面上的电荷转移，一些涉及三维或化学界面上分子种类的溶解和差异。这些和随后的研究表明，具有指示电荷转移限制的i-V特性的电极（例如，塔菲尔行为），事实上，可以限制的步骤，本身并不涉及电荷转移[4]。尽管固态文献比水溶液或聚合物文献更紧密地坚持三相边界概念，但今天很少有不受固态反应和不同过程限制的固态电化学反应的例子。
One example is the O2-reduction reaction on a mixedconducting perovskite electrode, which defi es rational explanation in terms of interfacial impedance. In order to incorporate noncharge-transfer eff ects, workers oft en apply an empirical Butler– Volmer model (for DC characteristics) or an equivalent-circuit model (for AC impedance) that treat non-charge-transfer processes in terms of an eff ective overpotential/current relationship [5, 6]. However, this approach lacks generality and can oft en be incorrect for treating oxygen absorption and solid-state and gaseous diff usion, which contribute to the impedance in a convoluted manner [7]. Although such models may provide a useful set of parameters to ‘fi t’ data accurately, they leave the electrode reaction mechanism only vaguely or empirically defi ned, and provide little mechanistic insight.
一个例子是在混合导电钙钛矿电极上的O2还原反应，其根据界面阻抗定义了合理的解释。为了纳入非电荷转移效应，工作人员通常采用经验Butler- Volmer模型（用于DC特性）或等效电路模型（用于AC阻抗），这些模型根据有效过电位/电流关系处理非电荷转移过程[5，6]。然而，这种方法缺乏通用性，并且对于处理氧气吸收以及固态和气态差异来说往往是不正确的，这以复杂的方式对阻抗起作用[7]。虽然这样的模型可以提供一组有用的参数来准确地“拟合”数据，但是它们仅模糊地或凭经验地定义了电极反应机制，并且提供了很少的机理见解。
Th e purpose of this paper is to provide a framework for defi ning ‘charge-transfer’ and ‘non-charge-transfer’ processes, and to illustrate how they are diff erent. We investigate why charge-transfer models have diffi culty modelling non-chargetransfer eff ects, and walk through several examples including the ALS model for oxygen reduction on a porous mixed-conducting oxygen electrode. We then review a recent study of linear AC polarization of La1-x Srx CoO3-5 (LSCO) electrodes on ceria that corroborates the ALS model, and demonstrates the importance of O2 surface exchange and diff usion. Th is study shows that the electrode reaction extends up to 20 microns beyond the electrode/ electrolyte interface, implying that electrode polarization is better described by macroscopic thermodynamic gradients than as an ‘overpotential’.
本文的目的是提供一个定义“电荷转移”和“非电荷转移”过程的框架，并说明它们是如何不同的。我们研究了为什么电荷转移模型难以模拟非电荷转移效应，并通过几个例子，包括在多孔混合导电氧电极上氧还原的ALS模型。然后，我们回顾了最近的一项研究，证实了ALS模型的氧化铈上的La 1-x Srx CoO 3 -5（LSCO）电极的线性交流极化，并证明了O2表面交换和差异的重要性。这一研究表明，电极反应延伸到20微米以外的电极/电解质界面，这意味着电极极化更好地描述宏观热力学梯度比作为一个“过电位”。

Now do the same for the Introductions of your target articles. You should fi nd that most Introductions begin with item 1, that the order of the model components is usually fairly reliable (although items 2 and 3 can occur more than once) and that almost all Introductions fi nish with number 4. We have, therefore, answered the three questions we set at the beginning of this unit:
现在对你的目标文章的介绍做同样的事情。您应该发现大多数介绍都是从项目1开始开始的，模型组件的顺序通常相当可靠（尽管项目2和3可能出现不止一次），并且几乎所有介绍都以数字4结束。因此，我们已经回答了本单元开始时提出的三个问题：
How do I start the Introduction? What type of sentence should I begin with?
如何开始介绍？我开始应该用什么类型的句子？
What type of information should be in my Introduction, and in what order?
我的介绍中应该包含哪些类型的信息，以及顺序如何？
How do I end the Introduction?
如何结束介绍？

1.4 Vocabulary

You now need to collect vocabulary for each part of the Introduction model. Th e vocabulary in this section is taken from over 600 research articles in different fields, all of which were written by native speakers and published in science journals. Only words/phrases which appear frequently have been included; this means that the vocabulary lists contain words and phrases which are considered normal and acceptable by both writers and editors. We will look at vocabulary for the following areas of the model:

现在需要为Introduction模型的每个部分收集词汇表。本节中的词汇来自不同领域的600多篇研究文章，所有这些文章都是由母语人士撰写并发表在科学期刊上的。只有经常出现的单词/短语被包括在内;这意味着词汇表包含作者和编辑认为正常和可接受的单词和短语。我们将查看模型的以下区域的词汇表：

1. ESTABLISHING SIGNIFICANCE

确立重要性

This includes phrases such as Much research in recent years. A good list of commonly used words and expressions will encourage you to include this in your first sentences.

这包括诸如近年来许多研究等短语。一个好的常用单词和表达的列表会鼓励你在你的第一句话中包括这一点。

2. PREVIOUS AND/OR CURRENT RESEARCH AND CONTRIBUTIONS

以往和/或目前的研究和贡献

This includes all past tense verbs describing what researchers did, i.e. calculated, monitored, etc. Instead of just using did, showed and found, you oft en need to be more specific about what a researcher actually ‘did’!

这包括所有描述研究人员做了什么的过去式动词，即计算，监测等，而不仅仅是使用做了，显示和发现，你经常需要更具体地说明研究人员实际上做了什么！

3. GAP/PROBLEM/QUESTION/PREDICTION

差距/问题/问题/预测

This includes ways to say exactly how previous and/or current research is not yet complete or has not addressed the problem your paper deals with, e.g. However, few studies have focused on…

这包括如何准确地说明以前和/或当前的研究尚未完成或尚未解决您的论文所涉及的问题，例如，然而，很少有研究关注......

4. THE PRESENT WORK

本工作

This may include your purpose, your strategy and the design of your paper, using language such as the aims of the present work are as follows:

这可能包括你的目的，你的策略和你的论文的设计，使用语言，如本工作的目的如下：

VOCABULARY TASK

词汇任务

Look through the Introductions in this unit and the Introductions of your target articles. Underline or highlight all the words and phrases that you think could be used in each of the four areas given above.

浏览本单元的介绍和你的目标文章的介绍。划出或突出所有你认为可以用在以上四个方面的单词和短语。

A full list of useful language can be found on the following pages. Th is includes all the appropriate words and phrases from the Introductions in this unit, together with some other common ones which you may have seen in your target articles. Underneath each list you will find examples of how they are used. Read through the list and check the meaning of any you don’t know in the dictionary. This list will be useful for many years.

有用的语言的完整列表可以在以下页面中找到。这包括了本单元介绍中所有合适的单词和短语，以及你可能在目标文章中看到的其他一些常用词。在每个列表下面，您将找到如何使用它们的示例。通读清单，并在字典中检查你不知道的意思。这份清单将在许多年内有用。

1.4.1 Vocabulary for the Introduction

1.4.1引言词汇
You now need to collect vocabulary for each part of the Introduction model. The vocabulary in this section is taken from over 600 research articles in different fields, all of which were written by native speakers and published in science journals. Only words/phrases which appear frequently have been included; this means that the vocabulary lists contain words and phrases which are considered normal and acceptable by both writers and editors. We will look at vocabulary for the following areas of the model:
现在需要为Introduction模型的每个部分收集词汇表。本节中的词汇来自不同领域的600多篇研究文章，所有这些文章都是由母语人士撰写并发表在科学期刊上的。只有经常出现的单词/短语被包括在内;这意味着词汇表包含作者和编辑认为正常和可接受的单词和短语。我们将查看模型的以下区域的词汇表：

1. ESTABLISHING SIGNIFICANCE
   确立重要性
   This includes phrases such as Much research in recent years. A good list of commonly used words and expressions will encourage you to include this in your first sentences.
   这是包括短语，如许多研究在最近几年。一个好的常用单词和表达的列表会鼓励你在你的第一句话中包括这一点。
2. PREVIOUS AND/OR CURRENT RESEARCH AND CONTRIBUTIONS
   以往和/或目前的研究和贡献
   This includes all past tense verbs describing what researchers did, i.e. calculated, monitored, etc. Instead of just using did, showed and found, you oft en need to be more specific about what a researcher actually ‘did’!
   这包括所有描述研究人员做了什么的过去式动词，即计算，监测等，而不仅仅是使用做了，显示和发现，你经常需要更具体地说明研究人员实际上做了什么！
3. GAP/PROBLEM/QUESTION/PREDICTION
   差距/问题/问题/预测
   This includes ways to say exactly how previous and/or current research is not yet complete or has not addressed the problem your paper deals with, e.g. However, few studies have focused on…
   这包括如何准确地说明以前和/或当前的研究尚未完成或尚未解决您的论文所涉及的问题，例如，然而，很少有研究关注......
4. THE PRESENT WORK
   本工作
   This may include your purpose, your strategy and the design of your paper, using language such as the aims of the present work are as follows:
   这可能包括你的目的，你的策略和你的论文的设计，使用语言，如本工作的目的如下：

   VOCABULARY TASK
   词汇任务
   Look through the Introductions in this unit and the Introductions of your target articles. Underline or highlight all the words and phrases that you think could be used in each of the four areas given above.
   浏览本单元的介绍和你的目标文章的介绍。划出或突出所有你认为可以用在以上四个方面的单词和短语。
   A full list of useful language can be found on the following pages. This includes all the appropriate words and phrases from the Introductions in this unit, together with some other common ones which you may have seen in your target articles. Underneath each list you will find examples of how they are used. Read through the list and check the meaning of any you don’t know in the dictionary. This list will be useful for many years.
   有用的语言的完整列表可以在以下页面中找到。这包括本单元介绍中所有合适的单词和短语，以及你可能在目标文章中看到的其他常见单词和短语。在每个列表下面，您将找到如何使用它们的示例。通读清单，并在字典中检查你不知道的意思。这份清单将在许多年内有用。

1.4.1 Vocabulary for the Introduction

引言词汇

1. ESTABLISHING SIGNIFICANCE
   确立重要性
   
   
   Here are some examples of how these are used:
   下面是一些如何使用这些的例子：

• A major current focus in population management is how to ensure sustainability of…
  当前人口管理的一个主要重点是如何确保…
• Numerous experiments have established that ionising radiation causes…
  大量的实验已经证实电离辐射会导致...
• Low-dose responses to radiation have generated considerable recent research interest.
  对辐射的低剂量反应最近引起了相当大的研究兴趣。
• Analysis of change in the transportation sector is vital for two important reasons: …
  分析交通部门的变化至关重要，原因有两个：
• PDA accounts for over 95% of all pancreatic cancers.
  PDA占所有胰腺癌的95%以上。
• It is generally accepted that joints in steel frames operate in a semirigid fashion.
  一般认为钢框架中的节点是以半刚性方式工作的。
• Nanocrystalline oxide films are attracting widespread interest in fields such as…
  纳米晶体氧化物薄膜在诸如…等领域引起了广泛的兴趣…
• The importance of strength anisotropy has been demonstrated by…
  强度各向异性的重要性已被证明…
• Convection heat transfer phenomena play an important role in the development of…
  对流换热现象在发展中起着重要的作用...
  For more than 100 years researchers have been observing the stressstrain behaviour of…
  100多年来，研究人员一直在观察...
• Much research in recent years has focused on carbon nanotubes.
  近年来，许多研究都集中在碳纳米管上。

2. VERBS USED IN THE LITERATURE REVIEW TO PRESENT PREVIOUS AND/OR CURRENT RESEARCH AND CONTRIBUTIONS
   文献综述中用于介绍既往和/或当前研究和贡献的动词
   
   Here are some examples of how these are used:
   下面是一些如何使用这些的例子：

• This phenomenon was demonstrated by…
  这种现象被证明是由…
• In their study, expanded T-cells were found in…
  在他们的研究中，在...
• Initial attempts focused on identifying the cause of…
  最初的尝试集中在确定的原因.
• Weather severity has been shown to…
  恶劣的天气已经被证明...
• Early data was interpreted in the study by…
  早期的数据在研究中被解释为...
• The algorithm has been proposed for these applications…
  该算法已提出了这些应用程序.
• The results on pair dispersion were reported in…
  对色散的研究结果已在…
• Their study suggested a possible cause for…
  他们的研究提出了一个可能的原因...
• An alternative approach was developed by…
  另一种方法是由…

Note: You can recycle these verbs at the end of the Introduction when you say what you plan to do in your paper (see 4 below)
注意：你可以在引言的末尾重复使用这些动词，当你说出你在论文中的计划时（见下面的4）

3. GAP/QUESTION/PROBLEM/CRITICISM
   差距/问题/问题/批评
   This is often signalled by words such as however, although, while, nevertheless, despite, but.
   这通常用诸如however，although，while，however，despite，but等词来表示。
   
   
   Here are some examples of how these are used:

• Few researchers have addressed the problem of…
  很少有研究者提出了这个问题...
• There remains a need for an efficient method that can…
  需要一种有效的方法，可以...
• However, light scattering techniques have been largely unsuccessful to date.
  然而，迄今为止，光散射技术在很大程度上是不成功的。
• The high absorbance makes this an impractical option in cases where…
  高吸光度使得这是一个不切实际的选择的情况下，其中...
• Unfortunately, these methods do not always guarantee…
  然而，这些方法并不总是保证...
• An alternative approach is necessary.
  必须采取替代办法。
• The function of these proteins remains unclear.
  这些蛋白质的功能尚不清楚。
• These can be time-consuming and are oft en technically difficult to perform.
  这些可能是耗时的，并且通常在技术上难以执行。
• Although this approach improves performance, it results in an unacceptable number of…
  虽然这种方法提高了性能，但它会导致不可接受的...
• Previous work has focused only on…
  以前的工作只集中在…
• However, the experimental confi guration was far from optimal.
  然而，实验配置远非最佳。

Note: Some of these words/phrases express very strong criticism. A useful exercise is to put an asterisk (*) next to those you think you could use if you were talking about the research of your professor or supervisor. You can also alter them to make them more polite (i.e. instead of unsuccessful, which is quite a strong criticism, you could write may not always be completely successful).
注意：其中一些词/短语表达了非常强烈的批评。一个有用的练习是，如果你谈论的是你的教授或导师的研究，在你认为可以使用的那些旁边加上星号（*）。你也可以改变它们，使它们更礼貌（即，而不是不成功，这是一个相当强烈的批评，你可以写可能并不总是完全成功）。

4. THE PRESENT WORK
   本工作
   
   Here are some examples of how these are used:
   下面是一些如何使用这些的例子：

• This paper focuses on…
  这篇论文的重点是…
• The purpose of this study is to describe and examine…
  本研究的目的是描述和检查…
• In order to investigate the biological signifi cance…
  为了研究其生物学意义...
• In this paper we present…
  在本文中，我们提出…
• New correlations were developed with excellent results…
  新的相关性得到了很好的结果...
• In the present study we performed…
  在本研究中，我们进行了...
• This paper introduces a scheme which solves these problems.
  本文介绍了一种解决这些问题的方案。
• The approach we have used in this study aims to…
  我们在这项研究中使用的方法旨在...
• This study investigated the use of…
  这项研究调查了使用…
• In this report we test the hypothesis that…
  在这份报告中，我们测试的假设，即...
• This paper is organised as follows:…
  该文件的组织如下：...

Note: In a thesis or a very long research paper, you use these to say what each chapter or section will do. Don’t rely on one-size-fi ts-all verbs such as discuss; some chapters/sections do not ‘discuss’ anything, and even if they do, their main purpose may be to compare things, analyse things or describe things rather than to discuss them.
注意：在一篇论文或一篇很长的研究论文中，你可以用这些来说明每一章或每一节将做什么。不要依赖“一刀切”的动词，如discuss;有些章节/节并不“讨论”任何事情，即使他们这样做，他们的主要目的可能是比较事物，分析事物或描述事物，而不是讨论它们。

1.5 Writing an Introduction

撰写介绍
In the next task, you will bring together and use all the information in this unit. You will write an Introduction according to the model, using the grammar and vocabulary you have learned, so make sure that you have the model (Section 1.3.3) and the vocabulary (Section 1.4) in front of you.
在下一个任务中，你将把本单元中的所有信息结合起来使用。你将根据模型，使用你学过的语法和词汇来写一篇介绍，所以确保你有模型（1.3.3节）和词汇（1.4节）在你面前。
Throughout this unit you have seen that conventional science writing is easier to learn, easier to write and easier for others to read than direct translations from your own language or more creative writing strategies. You have learned the conventional model of an Introduction and collected the vocabulary conventionally used. Your sentence patterns should also be conventional; use the sentences you have read in your target articles and in the Introductions printed here as models for the sentence patterns in your writing, and adapt them for the task.
在本单元中，你已经看到传统的科学写作比直接从你自己的语言翻译或更具创造性的写作策略更容易学习，更容易写作，更容易让别人阅读。你已经学习了介绍的常规模式，并收集了常规使用的词汇。你的句型也应该是常规的;使用你在目标文章和这里打印的介绍中读到的句子作为你写作中句型的模型，并使它们适应任务。
Follow the model exactly this time. After you have practiced it once or twice you can vary it to suit your needs. However, you should use it to check Introductions you have written so that you can be sure that the information is in an appropriate order and that you have done what your readers expect you to do in an Introduction.
这次完全按照模型来。在你练习了一两次之后，你可以改变它以适应你的需要。但是，你应该用它来检查你写的介绍，这样你就可以确保信息的顺序是正确的，你已经做了读者期望你在介绍中做的事情。
Although a model answer is provided in the Key, you should try to have your own answer checked by a native speaker of English if possible, to make sure that you are using the vocabulary correctly.
虽然答案中提供了一个标准答案，但如果可能的话，您应该尝试让母语为英语的人检查您自己的答案，以确保您正确使用词汇。

1.5.1 Write an Introduction

撰写介绍
Imagine that you have just completed a research project to design a bicycle cover which can protect the cyclist from injury, pollution, or just from rain. Perhaps you provided a computer simulation of its use, or modelled the ventilation system. Perhaps you were involved in the aerodynamics, or the polymer construction of the material for the cover — or any other aspect of the project. Write the Introduction of your research paper, to be published in the Journal of Pedal-Powered Vehicles (Vol. 3). Th e title of your research paper is A COVER FOR THE SPPPV (Single-Person Pedal-Powered Vehicle) and your Introduction should be between 200– 400 words. You can lie as much as you like, and of course you will have to create fake research references. Follow the model as closely as possible; make sure your Introduction contains the four main components of the model and try out some of the new vocabulary.
想象一下，你刚刚完成了一个研究项目，设计了一个自行车盖，可以保护骑自行车的人免受伤害，污染，或只是从雨。也许你提供了一个计算机模拟它的使用，或模拟通风系统。也许你参与了空气动力学，或聚合物结构的材料的封面-或任何其他方面的项目。撰写你的研究论文的引言，将发表在《脚踏车杂志》（第三卷）上。你的研究论文的题目是一个封面的SPPPV（单人踏板动力车）和你的介绍应该在200- 400字之间。你可以尽可能多地撒谎，当然，你将不得不创建虚假的研究参考。尽可能地遵循模型;确保你的介绍包含模型的四个主要组成部分，并尝试一些新的词汇表。
If you get stuck and don’t know what to write next, use the model and the vocabulary to help you move forward. Don’t look at the key until you have fi nished writing.
如果你陷入了困境，不知道下一步该写什么，使用模型和词汇表来帮助你前进。写完后再看钥匙。

1.5.2 Key

关键
Here is a sample answer. When you read it, think about which part of the model is represented in each sentence.
下面是一个示例答案。当你读它的时候，想想模型的哪一部分在每个句子中被代表。

A COVER FOR THE SPPPV (Single-Person Pedal-Powered Vehicle)
SPPPV（单人踏板动力车）的盖子
Concern about global warming and urban air pollution have become central issues in transport policy decision-making, and as a result much research in recent years has focused on the development of vehicles which are environmentally friendly. Air quality in cities is currently significantly lower than in rural areas and this has been shown to be directly linked to the level of vehicle emissions from private cars. Due to the fact that urban transport policy in the UK is designed to reduce or discourage the use of private cars, there has been an increase in the sale of non-polluting vehicles such as the SPPPV (Single-Person Pedal-Powered Vehicle). However, although the number of SPPPV users has increased, safety and comfort issues need to be addressed if the number of users is to increase to a level at which a significant effect on environmental pollution can be achieved.
对全球变暖和城市空气污染的关注已成为交通政策决策的中心问题，因此近年来的许多研究都集中在开发环保车辆上。目前，城市的空气质量明显低于农村地区，这已被证明与私人汽车的车辆排放水平直接相关。由于英国的城市交通政策旨在减少或不鼓励使用私人汽车，因此SPPPV（单人踏板动力车）等无污染车辆的销售有所增加。然而，尽管SPPPV用户的数量增加了，但如果用户的数量要增加到可以实现对环境污染的显著影响的水平，则需要解决安全性和舒适性问题。
Researchers have studied and improved many aspects of the SPPPV. In 1980, Wang et al. responded to the need for increased safety by designing an SPPPV surrounded by a ‘cage’ of safety bars, and in 2001 Martinez developed this further with the introduction of a reinforced polymer screen which could be fitted to the safety bars to protect the cyclist’s face in the event of a collision. The issue of comfort has also been addressed by many design teams; in 1998 Kohl et al. introduced an SPPPV with a built-in umbrella, which could be opened at the touch of a button, and more recently, Martinez has added a mesh filter which can be placed over the entire cage to reduce the risk of environmental pollution. However, the resulting ‘cage’ or cover is aerodynamically ineffective due to the shape of the umbrella and the weight of the mesh filter.
研究人员对SPPPV的许多方面进行了研究和改进。1980年，Wang等人通过设计一个由安全杆“笼”包围的SPPPV来满足增加安全性的需求，2001年Martinez进一步开发了这一技术，引入了一种可以安装在安全杆上的增强聚合物屏幕，以在发生碰撞时保护骑车人的面部。舒适性的问题也得到了许多设计团队的重视; 1998年，Kohl等人推出了一款内置雨伞的SPPPV，只需按一下按钮即可打开，最近，Martinez增加了一个网状过滤器，可以放置在整个笼子上，以减少环境污染的风险。然而，由于伞的形状和网状过滤器的重量，所得到的“笼”或盖在空气动力学上是无效的。
In this study, we used computer simulation to model the aerodynamic effect of the existing safety and comfort features and we present a new design which integrates these features in an optimally-effective aerodynamic shape.
在这项研究中，我们使用计算机模拟来模拟现有的安全性和舒适性功能的空气动力学效果，我们提出了一个新的设计，将这些功能集成在一个最佳的有效的空气动力学形状。