Unit 2 Writing about Methodology

sciencewriting 论文写作
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  1. 2.1 Structure
  2. 2.2 Grammar and Writing Skills
    1. 2.2.1 Passives and tense pairs
    2. 2.2.2 Use of ‘a’ and ‘the’
    3. 2.2.3 Adverbs and adverb location
  • 2.3 Writing Task: Build a Model
    1. 2.3.1 Building a model
    2. 2.3.2 Key
    3. 2.3.3 The model
  • 2.4 Vocabulary
    1. 2.4.1 Vocabulary task
    2. 2.4.2 Vocabulary for the Methodology section
  • 2.5 Writing a Methodology Section
    1. 2.5.1 Write a Methodology section
    2. 2.5.2 Key

    • 第二单元 写作方法论

    2.1 Structure

    结构
    The title of this section varies in different disciplines and in different journals. It is sometimes called Materials and Methods, or it can be called Procedure, Experiments, Experimental, Simulation, Methodology or Model. Th is section is the first part of the central ‘report’ section of the research article (the second part is the Results section), and it reports what you did and/or what you used.
    这一部分的标题在不同的学科和不同的期刊中有所不同。它有时被称为材料和方法，或者它可以被称为程序，实验，实验，模拟，方法或模型。这部分是研究文章的中心“报告”部分的第一部分（第二部分是结果部分），它报告了你做了什么和/或你使用了什么。
    Most journals publish (usually on the Internet) a Guide for Authors. Before you begin to read this unit, access the guide for a journal you read regularly — if you’re lucky, it will include a short description of what the editors expect in each section in addition to technical information relating to the figures. Here is a typical sentence from such a guide:
    大多数期刊都出版（通常在互联网上）作者指南。在你开始阅读本单元之前，请查阅你经常阅读的期刊指南--如果你幸运的话，除了与数字有关的技术信息外，它还包括编辑对每一部分的期望的简短描述。下面是这样一个指南中的典型句子：

    The Methodology should contain sufficient detail for readers to replicate the work done and obtain similar results.
    该方法应包含足够的细节，使读者能够重复所做的工作并获得类似的结果。

    It is true that your work must contain sufficient detail to be repeatable, but the type of writing you will need to do is not just a record of what you did and/or used. One of the most interesting and important changes you need to make in the way you write is that until now, you have probably been writing for people (perhaps your teachers) who know more about your research topic than you do. You have been displaying to them that you understand the tasks they have set and have performed them correctly. However, when you write a research article, people will be learning from you. Therefore you now need to be able to communicate information about a new procedure, a new method, or a new approach so that everyone reading it can not only carry it out and obtain similar results, but also understand and accept your procedure.
    的确，你的作品必须包含足够的细节才能被重复，但你需要做的写作类型不仅仅是记录你做了什么和/或使用了什么。你需要在写作方式上做出的最有趣和最重要的改变之一是，到目前为止，你可能一直在为比你更了解你的研究主题的人（也许是你的老师）写作。你一直在向他们展示你理解他们设定的任务，并正确地执行了这些任务。然而，当你写一篇研究文章时，人们会向你学习。因此，您现在需要能够传达有关新程序、新方法或新途径的信息，以便每个阅读它的人不仅可以执行它并获得类似的结果，而且还可以理解和接受您的程序。

    When we come to ask our three questions:
    当我们来问我们的三个问题：

    • How do I start the Methodology/Experiments section? What type of sentence should I begin with?
      如何开始方法/实验部分？我开始应该用什么类型的句子？
    • What type of information should be in this section, and in what order?
      本节应包含哪些类型的信息，顺序如何？
    • How do I end this section?
      我如何结束这一节？

    you already know that the Methodology should contain a detailed description of what you did and/or used, and this helps to answer the second of the three questions. As we will see, however, it is not a full answer; to be effective and conform to what is normally done in a research paper, this section must contain other important information as well.
    你已经知道方法论应该包含你所做和/或使用的详细描述，这有助于回答三个问题中的第二个。然而，正如我们将看到的，这并不是一个完整的答案;为了有效并符合研究论文中通常所做的，这一部分还必须包含其他重要信息。
    Read the example below. The title of the paper is Changes in the chemistry of groundwater in the chalk of the London Basin. Don’t worry if the subject matter is not familiar to you or if you have difficulty understanding individual words, especially technical terms like groundwater. Just try to get a general understanding at this stage and familiarise yourself with the type of language used.
    阅读下面的例子。这篇论文的题目是《伦敦盆地白垩层地下水化学性质的变化》。如果你不熟悉这个主题，或者你很难理解个别单词，尤其是地下水这样的专业术语，不要担心。在这一阶段，试着获得一个大致的理解，并熟悉所使用的语言类型。

    Methodology
    方法论

    1. The current investigation involved sampling and analysing six sites to measure changes in groundwater chemistry.
      目前的调查包括对六个地点进行取样和分析，以测量地下水化学的变化。
    2. The sites were selected from the London Basin area, which is located in the south-east of England and has been frequently used to interpret groundwater evolution.
      这些地点选自伦敦盆地地区，该地区位于英格兰东南部，经常用于解释地下水演化。
    3. A total of 18 samples was collected and then analysed for the isotopes mentioned earlier.
      总共收集了18个样品，然后分析了前面提到的同位素。
    4. Samples 1–9 were collected in thoroughly-rinsed 25 ml brown glass bottles which were filled to the top and then sealed tightly to prevent contamination.
      将样品1-9收集在充分冲洗的25 ml棕色玻璃瓶中，将其填充至顶部，然后紧密密封以防止污染。
    5. The filled bottles were shipped directly to two separate laboratories at Reading University, where they were analysed using standard methods suitably miniaturised to handle small quantities of water.
      灌装后的瓶子被直接运送到阅读大学的两个独立实验室，在那里使用标准方法对它们进行分析，这些方法经过适当的改进以处理少量的水。
    6. Samples 10–18 were prepared in our laboratory using a revised version of the precipitation method established by the ISF Institute in Germany.
      样品10-18在我们的实验室中使用由德国的ISF研究所建立的沉淀法的修订版本制备。
    7. This method obtains a precipitate through the addition of BaCl2.2H2O; the resulting precipitate can be washed and stored easily.
      该方法通过加入BaCl 2·2 H2O获得沉淀物;所得沉淀物可以容易地洗涤和储存。
    8. The samples were subsequently shipped to ISF for analysis by accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS).
      随后将样品运送到ISF进行加速器质谱分析（AMS）。
    9. All tubing used was stainless steel, and although two samples were at risk of CFC contamination as a result of brief contact with plastic, variation among samples was negligible.
      所有使用的管道都是不锈钢的，虽然有两个样品由于与塑料短暂接触而有CFC污染的风险，但样品之间的差异可以忽略不计。

    2.2 Grammar and Writing Skills

    语法和写作技巧
    This section deals with three language areas which are important in the Methodology:
    本节涉及方法中的三个重要语言领域：
    PASSIVES AND TENSE PAIRS
    被动语态和时态对
    USE OF ‘A’ AND ‘THE’
    “A”和“THE”的用法
    ADVERBS AND ADVERB LOCATION
    副词和副词位置

    2.2.1 Passives and tense pairs

    被动语态和时态对
    When a sentence changes from active to passive, it looks like this:
    当一个句子从主动变为被动时，它看起来像这样：

    The dog bit the policeman.
    狗咬了警察。active
    Th e policeman was bitten by the dog.
    警察被狗咬了。passive

    But in formal academic writing, when you report what you did, you don’t write ‘by us’ or ‘by me’ when changing the sentence from active to passive. You simply leave the agent out, creating an agentless passive:
    但在正式的学术写作中，当你报告你所做的事情时，当句子从主动转为被动时，你不会写“by us”或“by me”。您只需将代理排除在外，创建无代理被动：

    We/I collected the samples.
    我们/我收集了样本。active
    The samples were collected.
    采集了样本。passive

    Before you begin to write the description of what you did and used, you need to check with the Guide for Authors in your target journal (if you are writing a doctoral thesis in an English-speaking country, check with your supervisor) to find out whether this part of the paper or thesis should be written in the passive or in the active. You can use the active (we collected) if you worked as part of a research team. Using the active is not usually appropriate when you write your PhD thesis because you worked alone, and research is not normally written up in the first person singular (I collected). In most cases, you will find that in papers and theses, the procedure you used in your research is described in the passive, either in the Present Simple passive (is collected) or in the Past Simple passive (was collected). To make that choice, it is useful to explore the advantages and disadvantages of each.
    在你开始描述你所做的和使用的东西之前，你需要检查你的目标期刊的作者指南（如果你是在一个讲英语的国家写博士论文，请与你的导师核实），以确定这部分论文或论文是否应该以被动或主动的方式撰写。如果你是研究团队的一员，你可以使用我们收集的活动。当你写博士论文时，使用主动语态通常是不合适的，因为你是独自工作的，研究通常不会用第一人称单数（我收集的）。在大多数情况下，你会发现在论文和论文中，你在研究中使用的程序是用被动语态描述的，要么是现在式被动语态（被收集），要么是过去式被动语态（被收集）。要做出这种选择，探索每种方法的优点和缺点是有用的。
    There are two common errors in the way passives are used in this section. First, look at these two sentences:
    本节中使用被动语态的方式有两个常见的错误。首先来看这两句话：

    (a)A flexible section is inserted in the pipe.
    将在管道中插入一个柔性截面。Present Simple passive 现在时简单被动语态
    A flexible section was inserted in the pipe.
    在管道中插入了一个柔性节段。Past Simple passive 过去式简单被动语态

    When you write about what you did and what you used, you need to be able to distinguish between standard procedures, i.e. what is normally done or how a piece of equipment is normally constructed, and what you did yourself. In the examples above, (a) uses the Present Simple tense to describe what is normally done or to describe a standard piece of equipment used in the research and (b) uses the Past Simple tense to describe what you did yourself. It is conventional in this section to use the passive for both, and the agent of the action is not mentioned in the sentence — we don’t add ‘by the researcher’ or ‘by me’ at the end.
    当你写你做了什么和你使用了什么，你需要能够区分标准程序，即通常做什么或一件设备通常是如何构造的，以及你自己做了什么。在上面的例子中，（a）使用一般现在时来描述通常所做的事情或描述研究中使用的标准设备;（b）使用一般过去时来描述你自己所做的事情。在这一节中，习惯性地使用被动语态来表示两者，并且在句子中没有提到动作的施事--我们不会在末尾加上“by the researcher”或“by me”。
    Passives used in formal writing are normally of this type, i.e. agentless passives. However, because the agent is not given, the only way that the reader can separate what is normally done (Sentence (a)) from what you did yourself (Sentence (b)) is if you use the correct tense. Check your target journal, but wherever possible it is clearer to use the Present Simple passive for what is normally done and the Past Simple passive to indicate what you did yourself.
    在正式写作中使用的被动句通常是这种类型，即无施事被动句。然而，由于施事没有给出，读者要想区分正常情况下做的事（句子（a））和你自己做的事（句子（b）），唯一的办法就是使用正确的时态。检查你的目标日记，但在可能的情况下，用现在一般被动语态来表示通常做的事情，用过去时一般被动语态来表示你自己做的事情会更清楚。
    You can see that if you don’t pay careful attention to the tense of these sentences, your own work may become confused with the standard procedures you are describing. This is a very common error, even among native speakers, and has serious consequences. If the reader cannot identify your contribution, that is a disaster! Look at this example:
    你可以看到，如果你不仔细注意这些句子的时态，你自己的工作可能会与你所描述的标准程序混淆。这是一个非常常见的错误，即使在母语人士中也是如此，并且会产生严重的后果。如果读者不能识别你的贡献，那是一场灾难！看看这个例子：

    Two dye jets are placed in the laser cavity. A gain jet is then excited by an argon ion laser and the pulses are spatially filtered in order to obtain a Gaussian beam. Polarisation is confirmed using a polarising cube. Th e pulses were split into reference pulses and probe pulses and the reference pulses were carefully aligned into the detector to minimise noise levels.
    两个染料喷嘴被放置在激光腔中。增益射流，然后激发氩离子激光器和脉冲进行空间滤波，以获得高斯光束。使用偏振立方体确认偏振。脉冲被分成参考脉冲和探测脉冲，并且参考脉冲被仔细地对准到检测器中以使噪声水平最小化。

    In this case, splitting the pulses into two groups for testing was the significant innovation of the writer’s research team but the only way the reader knows this is because of the change in tense from Present Simple passive to Past Simple passive (were split). Here is another example:
    在这种情况下，将脉冲分为两组进行测试是作者研究团队的重大创新，但读者知道这一点的唯一方法是因为时态从现在一般被动式到过去一般被动式的变化（被分裂）。下面是另一个例子：

    Samples for gas analysis were collected using the method described by Brown (1999), which uses a pneumatic air sampling pump.
    使用Brown（1999）描述的方法收集用于气体分析的样品，该方法使用气动空气取样泵。

    Another difficulty arises with the passive when you write about the procedure you used and compare it with the work of other researchers. You can use the Past Simple agentless passive to describe the procedure you used (the samples were collected using a suction tube) but you may also need to use exactly the same Past Simple agentless passive to describe the procedure used by the other researcher whose work you are citing (the samples were collected using a suction tube). Th is means that unless you are very careful, the reader has no way of separating your work from that of the other researcher. The fact that you are so familiar with what you did means that your own contribution is obvious to you — but it may not be obvious to your reader.
    当你写下你所使用的程序并将其与其他研究人员的工作进行比较时，被动语态会出现另一个困难。你可以使用一般过去时无施事被动语态来描述你所使用的过程（样本是用吸管收集的），但你也可能需要使用完全相同的一般过去时无施事被动语态来描述你所引用的其他研究者所使用的过程（样本是用吸管收集的）。这意味着，除非你非常小心，否则读者无法将你的工作与其他研究人员的工作分开。你对自己所做的事情如此熟悉，这意味着你自己的贡献对你来说是显而易见的，但对你的读者来说可能并不明显。
    One way to make sure that your own contribution is clear and easy to identify is by marking it with words — perhaps by adding phrases like In this study, the samples were collected using a suction tube or In our experiments the samples were collected using a suction tube, and by identifying the procedure used by other researchers with careful references at the appropriate place in the sentence (In Brown (1999) the samples were collected using a suction tube).
    一种确保你自己的贡献是清晰和容易识别的方法是用文字标记它-也许通过添加短语，如在这项研究中，样本是使用吸管收集的，或者在我们的实验中，样本是使用吸管收集的，并通过在句子中适当的地方仔细引用其他研究人员使用的程序来识别（在Brown（1999）中，使用吸管收集样本）。
    There are five possible uses that you may need. Note the different tenses.
    有五种可能的用途，你可能需要。注意不同的时态。

    2.2.2 Use of ‘a’ and ‘the’

    “a”和“the”的用法
    This is one of the most problematic areas of English grammar and usage. Many languages do not have separate words for a and the, and even if they do, these words may not correspond exactly to the way in which they are used in English. Students studying English as a second language are oft en given the following useful, but sometimes confusing, rule:
    这是英语语法和用法中最有问题的领域之一。许多语言没有单独的单词表示a和the，即使有，这些单词也可能与英语中的用法不完全对应。学习英语作为第二语言的学生经常被给予以下有用的，但有时令人困惑的规则：

    单数可数名词需要限定词
    A determiner is a word like the, a, my, this, one, some. It’s a difficult rule to operate successfully because two problems need to be solved before you can use it. Firstly, it’s hard to know exactly which nouns are countable and, secondly, even when you know, how do you decide whether to use a or the?
    限定词是像the，a，my，this，one，some这样的词。这是一个很难成功运用的规则，因为在你使用它之前需要解决两个问题：首先，很难确切地知道哪些名词是可数名词;其次，即使你知道，你如何决定是用a还是the？
    Let’s look at the first problem. Deciding which nouns are countable nouns and which aren’t isn’t as easy as it looks. Many nouns which are oft en considered uncountable can actually be used ‘countably’. Nouns like death or childhood, for example, can occur in the plural:
    我们来看第一个问题。判断哪些名词是可数名词，哪些不是，并不像看起来那么容易。许多常被认为是不可数的名词实际上也可以用countably。例如，像死亡或童年这样的名词可以以复数形式出现：

    There have been three deaths this year from pneumonia. Our childhoods were very different; I grew up in France and she grew up in China.
    今年已有三人死于肺炎。我们的童年非常不同;我在法国长大，她在中国长大。

    and so can nouns like industry:
    像工业这样的名词也可以：

    Many industries rely on fossil fuels.
    许多工业依赖化石燃料。

    Even names of materials like steel can occur in the plural:
    甚至像钢这样的材料的名称也可以以复数形式出现：

    Some steels are used in the manufacture of medical instruments.
    一些钢用于制造医疗器械。

    In the following list of uncountable nouns, mark those which can also be used in the plural, i.e. countably. Th e way you use a noun determines whether it is used in its countable or uncountable form. So when you use a noun like industry, stop and think — do you mean industry in general (uncountable) or a particular industry (countable)? Check your answers in the Key.
    在下面的不可数名词表中，标出那些也可以用复数形式的名词，即countably。你使用名词的方式决定了它是可数形式还是不可数形式。所以，当你使用像industry这样的名词时，停下来想一想，你是指一般的industry（不可数的）还是特定的industry（可数的）？检查你的答案在关键。

    KEY
    The nouns which can also have a countable meaning appear in italics.
    也可以有可数意义的名词用斜体字表示。


    Now look at the second problem: how do you decide whether to use a or the? You may have been told that a is used for general reference and the is used for specific reference, but in the following sentence:
    现在来看第二个问题：如何决定使用a还是the？你可能已经被告知，a用于一般指代，the用于具体指代，但在下面的句子中：
    There is a book on the shelf above my desk; can you bring it here?
    我书桌上方的书架上有一本书，你能把它拿过来吗？
    a book clearly refers to a specific book; in fact, that part of the sentence specifies which book the speaker wants. So if the specific/general criterion doesn’t help you to select a or the, what does?
    一本书显然是指一本特定的书;事实上，句子的这一部分指定了说话者想要哪本书。那么，如果特定/一般标准不能帮助您选择a或the，那么什么可以呢？
    Start by asking yourself this simple question: Why do you use a the first time you talk about something, but when you refer to it again you use the? Aft er all, it’s the same specific item on both occasions. For example, in the sentence below, why does the first reference to the cheese sandwich use a and the second reference use the if both refer to the same specific sandwich?
    首先问自己一个简单的问题：为什么你第一次谈论某事时使用a，但当你再次提到它时，你会使用the？毕竟，这是相同的具体项目在两个场合。例如，在下面的句子中，为什么第一次提到奶酪三明治时使用a，第二次提到奶酪三明治时使用if，这两次都是指同一个三明治？

    I had a cheese sandwich and an apple for lunch. Th e sandwich was fine but the apple had a worm in it.
    我午饭吃了一个奶酪三明治和一个苹果。三明治很好，但苹果里有虫。

    The difference is that the first time the speaker mentions the cheese sandwich or the apple, only the speaker knows about them — but the second time, both the speaker and listener know. Th e worm, however, is ‘new’ to the listener, and so is referred to using a. Now we can add a new rule:
    不同的是，第一次说话者提到奶酪三明治或苹果时，只有说话者知道它们，但第二次，说话者和听者都知道。然而，蠕虫对侦听器来说是“新的”，因此使用。现在我们可以添加一个新规则：

    如果或当你和你的读者都知道你的意思是什么东西/人时使用the
    This is true even if the thing or person has not been mentioned before, for example, in the following sentences:
    这是真的，即使该事物或人之前没有被提到过，例如，在下面的句子中：

    I arrived at Heathrow Airport but the check-in was closed.
    我到达了希思罗机场，但是登记手续已经结束了。
    I bought a new computer but the keyboard was faulty.
    我买了一台新电脑，但键盘有毛病。

    check-in and keyboard need the because as soon as Heathrow Airport is mentioned, the speaker and listener know about and therefore share checkin; as soon as a computer is mentioned, they share keyboard. Similarly, in the sentence:
    登记和键盘需要，因为一旦提到希思罗机场，说话者和听者就知道并因此共享登记;一旦提到计算机，他们就共享键盘。同样，在这句话中：

    He lit a match but the flame went out.
    他点燃了一根火柴，但火焰熄灭了。

    mentioning a match automatically creates the concept of flame in the reader’s mind — and this shared understanding is marked by the use of the. Similarly, if we were in the same room and I told you to look up at the ceiling, you wouldn’t ask me ‘Which ceiling are you talking about?’ because it would be obvious; we would share it.
    提及火柴会自动在读者的脑海中创造出火焰的概念--这种共同的理解是以使用。同样，如果我们在同一个房间里，我告诉你抬头看天花板，你不会问我“你说的是哪一个天花板？”因为这是显而易见的，我们可以分享

    Did she get the job? (the job we both know she wanted)
    她得到工作了吗？(the我们都知道她想要的工作）
    I’ll meet you in the library later. (the library we normally use)
    一会儿图书馆见。(the我们通常使用的库）

    Here are some more useful rules:
    以下是一些更有用的规则：

    如果只有一个可能的引用，请使用the

    We removed the softest layer of membrane.
    我们去掉了最软的一层膜。
    Cairo is the capital of Egypt.
    开罗是埃及的首都。
    The opening was located in the centre of each mesh.
    开口位于每个网格的中心。
    Government policy is committed to protecting the environment.
    政府的政策致力于保护环境。
    The sun’s altitude is used to determine latitude.
    太阳的高度被用来确定纬度。

    如果它不重要，或者你不知道，或者你的读者不知道你指的是什么东西/什么人，就用A。
    A 35 ml brown glass bottle was used to store the liquid. (It doesn’t matter which 35 ml brown glass bottle was used.)
    使用35 ml棕色玻璃瓶储存液体。(It不管使用的是哪种35毫升棕色玻璃瓶。
    The subject then spoke to an interviewer. (It doesn’t matter which interviewer/I know which one but you don’t.)
    然后，这个人接受了采访。(It不管是哪个面试官/我知道是哪个，但你不知道。
    It works on the same principle as a combustion engine. (It doesn’t matter which combustion engine.)
    它的工作原理与内燃机相同。(It不在乎是哪种内燃机）。

    Sometimes the choice of a or the changes the meaning of the sentence completely:
    有时，选择a或the会完全改变句子的意思：

    (a)This effect may hide a connection between the two. (There may possibly be a connection between the two but if there is, we cannot see it.)
    这种影响可能隐藏了两者之间的联系。（两者之间可能有联系，但如果有，我们看不到。）
    (b)This effect may hide the connection between the two. (There is definitely a connection between the two but we may not be able to see it because of this effect.)
    这种影响可能隐藏了两者之间的联系。（两者之间肯定有联系，但我们可能因为这种影响而无法看到它。）
    这种影响可能隐藏了两者之间的联系。（两者之间肯定有联系，但我们可能因为这种影响而无法看到它。

    Here’s another pair in which the choice of a or the has a significant effect on the meaning (∅ is used here to indicate the plural of a):
    下面是另一对句子，其中a或the的选择对意义有很大影响（这里用∅表示a的复数）：

    (a)The nodes should be attached to ∅ two adjacent receptor sites. (There are many receptor sites and any two adjacent ones will do.)
    淋巴结应连接到两个相邻的受体位点。（有许多受体位点，任何两个相邻的都可以。）
    (b)The nodes should be attached to the two adjacent receptor sites. (There are only two receptor sites.)
    淋巴结应连接到两个相邻的受体位点。（只有两个受体位点。）

    The best way to use the information you have just learned is to take a paragraph from a research article that you are reading and use the information in this grammar section to work out why the writer has chosen each instance of the or a, or why the writer has not used any determiner before a particular noun.
    使用你刚刚学到的信息的最好方法是从你正在阅读的一篇研究文章中选取一段，并使用语法部分的信息来弄清楚作者为什么选择了the或a的每个实例，或者为什么作者在特定的名词前没有使用任何限定词。
    Another important point to note about the use of a, the and ∅ is that they can all be used generically, i.e. when expressing a general truth:
    另一个关于a、the和∅的用法需要注意的要点是，它们都可以一般地使用，即当表达一个普遍真理时：

    The electroencephalograph is a machine for measuring brain waves.
    脑电图仪是一种测量脑电波的机器。
    An electroencephalograph is a machine for measuring brain waves.
    脑电图仪是一种测量脑电波的机器。
    Electroencephalographs are machines for measuring brain waves.
    脑电图仪是测量脑电波的机器。

    One last note: a is used before consonant sounds, while an is used before vowel sounds. Sound, not spelling, is important here, so we write an MRI scan because the letter ‘M’ is pronounced ‘em’, but a UV light because the letter ‘U’ is pronounced ‘yoo’.
    最后一个音符：a用在辅音之前，an用在元音之前。声音，而不是拼写，在这里是重要的，所以我们写一个MRI扫描，因为字母'M'是发音'em'，但紫外线灯，因为字母'U'是发音'yoo'。

    2.2.3 Adverbs and adverb location

    2.2.3副词和副词位置
    When you are communicating complex ideas in another language, an obvious grammatical error is not as bad as an error which is invisible. A proofreader or editor will notice an obvious grammatical error and correct it, but if the sentence is written in grammatically correct English the error is not visible to proofreaders and editors. An example of an invisible error is where the sentence is grammatically correct but the choice of which verb tense to use is inappropriate or does not represent the intention of the writer. Th ese hidden errors are worrying because neither the writer nor the editor/proofreader knows they have occurred and yet the sentence does not mean what the writer intended.
    当你用另一种语言交流复杂的思想时，一个明显的语法错误并不像一个看不见的错误那么糟糕。校对员或编辑会注意到一个明显的语法错误并纠正它，但如果句子是用语法正确的英语写的，校对员和编辑就看不到这个错误。看不见的错误的一个例子是，句子在语法上是正确的，但使用的动词时态的选择是不合适的，或者不代表作者的意图。这些隐藏的错误令人担忧，因为无论是作者还是编辑/校对员都不知道它们已经发生，但句子并不意味着作者的意图。
    Common hidden errors include mistakes in the use of a and the (see Section 2.2.2 above), whether or not to use a comma before the word which in relative clauses and adverb location errors. Adverb location errors are easy to make and hard to detect.
    常见的隐藏错误包括a和the的使用错误（见上文第2.2.2节），关系从句中which一词前是否使用逗号以及副词位置错误。定位误差很容易产生，但很难检测到。
    Adverbs don’t always do what you want or expect them to do. In the fi rst place, adverbs needing prepositions can be ambiguous (Look at that dog with one eye can either mean USING one eye or HAVING one eye) and in the second place, adverbs may attach themselves to unexpected parts of a sentence. Be careful where you put your adverb, and be especially careful if you are using more than one adverb in a sentence. Here is an example of the kind of problem you may encounter:
    他们并不总是做你想做或期望他们做的事。首先，需要介词的副词可能是模棱两可的（用一只眼睛看那只狗可以意味着用一只眼睛或有一只眼睛），其次，副词可能会附着在句子中意想不到的部分。注意副词的位置，尤其是在一个句子中使用多个副词时。以下是您可能遇到的问题类型的示例：

    The patient was discharged from hospital aft er being shot in the back with a 9 mm gun.
    患者背部被9毫米口径手枪击中后出院。

    Did the doctors shoot her?
    医生开枪打她了吗？

    He gave a lecture about liver cancer at the hospital last January.
    去年一月他在医院做了一个关于肝癌的讲座。

    Was the lecture in the hospital — or the cancer? Did the lecture refer to cancer cases occurring in January or did the lecture itself occur in January?
    是在医院演讲还是癌症？讲座是指发生在一月的癌症病例还是讲座本身发生在一月？
    Although there are rules for adverb location, they are complex and hard to apply when you are writing. Since your aim is to stay safe and write clearly, it is better to avoid adverb clusters like these, and rewrite the information in a different order. If your adverb relates to the whole sentence (i.e. clearly, last January, as sentence (i.e. clearly, last January, as a result) then consider putting the adverb at the front of the sentence sentence (i.e. clearly, last January, as a result) then consider putting the adverb at the front of the sentence:
    虽然副词的位置是有规则的，但它们很复杂，很难在写作中应用。既然你的目标是保持安全和清晰，最好避免像这样的副词集群，并以不同的顺序重写信息。如果你的副词与整个句子有关（即显然，去年一月，作为句子（即显然，去年一月，作为结果）然后考虑将副词放在句子的前面（即显然，去年一月，作为结果）然后考虑将副词放在句子的前面：

    Last January he gave a lecture about liver cancer at the hospital
    去年一月他在医院做了一个关于肝癌的讲座

    If you are still left with ambiguous adverb clusters, consider breaking the sentence down into units, each with its own adverb:
    如果你仍然有歧义的副词群，考虑把句子分成几个单元，每个单元都有自己的副词：

    Last January he gave a lecture at the hospital; his subject was liver cancer
    去年一月他在医院做了一个讲座;他的主题是肝癌

    2.3 Writing Task: Build a Model

    2.3写作任务：构建模型

    2.3.1 Building a model

    2.3.1建立模型
    You are now ready to begin to build a model of the Methodology by writing a short description of what the writer is doing in each sentence in the space provided below. The Key is on the next page. Once you have tried to produce your own model, you can use the Key to help you write this section of a research article when you eventually do it on your own.
    你现在已经准备好开始建立一个方法论的模型，在下面的空白处写一个简短的描述，描述作者在每个句子中做了什么。钥匙在下一页。一旦你尝试创建自己的模型，当你最终独立完成时，你可以使用Key来帮助你撰写研究文章的这一部分。
    GUIDELINES
    You should spend 30–45 minutes on this task.If you can’t think of a good description of the first sentence, choose an easier one, for example Sentence 4, and start with that. Remember that your model is only useful if it can be transferred to other Methodology sections, so don’t include content words such as groundwater or you won’t be able to use your model to generate Methodology sections in your field.
    你应该花30-45分钟来完成这个任务。如果你想不出一个好的描述第一句话，选择一个更容易的，比如第4句，然后从那里开始。请记住，只有当模型可以转移到其他方法学部分时，模型才有用，因此不要包含地下水等内容词，否则您将无法使用模型在字段中生成方法学部分。
    One way to find out what the writer is doing in a sentence — rather than what s/he is saying — is to imagine that your computer has accidentally deleted it. What is different for you (as a reader) when it disappears? If you press another key on the computer and the sentence comes back, how does that affect the way you respond to the information?
    要想知道作者在一个句子里做了什么，而不是他/她在说什么，一个方法是想象你的电脑不小心删除了它。当它消失时，你（作为读者）有什么不同？如果你按下电脑上的另一个键，句子又回来了，这对你对信息的反应有什么影响？
    Another way to figure out what the writer is doing in a sentence — rather than what s/he is saying — is to look at the grammar and vocabulary clues. What is the tense of the main verb? What is that tense normally used for? Is it the same tense as in the previous sentence? If not, why has the writer changed the tense? What words has the writer chosen to use?
    另一种弄清楚作者在句子中做了什么的方法--而不是他/她在说什么--是看语法和词汇线索。主要动词的时态是什么？这个时态通常用来做什么？这句话的时态和前一句是一样的吗？如果不是，作者为什么改变了时态？作者选用了哪些词语？
    Don’t expect to produce a perfect model. You will modify your model when you look at the Key, and perhaps again when you compare it to the way Methodology sections in your target articles work.
    不要指望创造一个完美的模型。当您查看Key时，您将修改您的模型，当您将其与目标文章中的方法论部分的工作方式进行比较时，可能会再次修改。

    2.3.2 Key


    在第1句中，“目前的调查包括对六个地点进行取样和分析，以测量地下水化学的变化。”作者提供了整个分节的总体概述，包括调查的目的。
    If you wrote ‘introduction’ or ‘introduces the Methodology’ here, that won’t help you when you come to write your own thesis or research article because it doesn’t tell you what exactly to write in that sentence.
    如果你在这里写了“介绍”或“介绍方法论”，当你写自己的论文或研究文章时，这对你没有帮助，因为它没有告诉你在这句话中到底要写什么。
    Why do I need to introduce the Methodology?
    为什么需要介绍方法论？
    In some cases, writers begin immediately with a description of the procedure or the materials. This is appropriate where the research focus is very narrow and all those who are likely to read it are carrying out similar research. If this is not the case, it is more reader-friendly to start with some introductory material. The aim of providing a short introduction is to make the entry to that section smooth for the reader. There are many ways to introduce the Methodology. Here are three of the most common ways:
    在某些情况下，写作者开始时会立即描述程序或材料。这是适当的研究重点是非常狭窄的，所有那些谁可能阅读它正在进行类似的研究。如果不是这种情况，那么从一些介绍性材料开始会更方便读者。提供简短介绍的目的是使读者顺利进入该部分。有许多方法可以介绍该方法。以下是三种最常见的方式：

    • Offer a general overview by outlining the parameters of the work, for example the number of tests, the equipment /material/soft ware used and perhaps also the purpose of the investigation. This helps the reader to get a general idea of this section.
      通过概述工作参数提供总体概述，例如测试次数、使用的设备/材料/软件以及可能的调查目的。这有助于读者对本节有一个大致的了解。
    • Provide background information about the materials or about the source of the materials/equipment.
      提供有关材料或材料/设备来源的背景信息。

    Refer back to something in the previous section. Common options are restating the aim of the project or the problem you are hoping to address.
    回到上一节的内容。常见的选择是重申项目的目标或你希望解决的问题。
    If you start with a general overview or even a general paragraph about what was done and used, it can then be broken down to produce the details. However, if you begin with the details, you force the reader to put those details together to create a general picture of what you did and used. This is quite difficult for the reader to do and it is not his/her job; it is your job as a writer to arrange the information in an appropriate order so that it is easy for the reader to process it.
    如果你从一个概述开始，甚至是一个关于做了什么和使用了什么的一般段落，那么它可以被分解以产生细节。然而，如果你开始的细节，你迫使读者把这些细节放在一起，创造一个你做了什么和使用的一般图片。这对读者来说是相当困难的，这不是他/她的工作;作为一个作家，你的工作是把信息安排在一个适当的顺序，以便读者容易处理它。
    Furthermore, asking your reader to put details together to create a picture of what you did is risky, because each reader may create a slightly different picture of the process if they begin ‘bottom-up’ with the details, rather than ‘top-down’ with a general overview. When you write using ‘topdown’ strategies you are in control. If you begin with general statements about what was done/used (In all cases, Most sites), you and your reader share the same framework, so when you fill in the details you are creating the same picture of what was done/used in the mind of each individual reader. Remember: show your reader the wall before you begin to examine the bricks.
    此外，要求读者把细节放在一起来描绘你所做的事情是有风险的，因为如果每个读者开始“自下而上”地描述细节，而不是“自上而下”地概述，他们可能会描绘出一个稍微不同的过程。当你使用“自上而下”的策略写作时，你就处于控制之中。如果你开始一般性的陈述做了什么/使用（在所有情况下，大多数网站），你和你的读者共享相同的框架，所以当你填写的细节，你是创建相同的图片做了什么/使用在每个读者的脑海中。记住：在你开始检查砖块之前，先让你的读者看到墙。

    在第2句中，“地点选自伦敦盆地地区，该地区位于英格兰东南部，经常用于解释地下水演变。2 -4作者提供了背景信息，并通过参考以前的研究证明了地点选择的合理性。
    Why do I need to justify or give reasons for what I did? Isn’t it obvious?
    为什么我需要为我所做的事情辩护或给予理由？不是很明显吗？
    Your reasons may be obvious to you, but they are not always obvious to your readers. If you fail to provide justification for what you did, then the reader may not accept the validity of your choices. They may wonder why you did things in a particular way, or why you used a particular procedure. This has a negative effect: if you don’t explain why you did things then readers cannot be expected to accept your methodology, and this will eventually affect the way they evaluate your whole paper.
    你的理由对你来说可能很明显，但对你的读者来说并不总是很明显。如果你不能为你所做的事情提供理由，那么读者可能不会接受你的选择的有效性。他们可能想知道你为什么以一种特定的方式做事，或者为什么你使用一种特定的程序。这有一个负面影响：如果你不解释你为什么这么做，读者就不能接受你的方法论，这最终会影响他们对你整篇论文的评价。
    Many writers believe that this section is just an impersonal description of what was done or used; in fact there is a strong persuasive and communicative element. We see this not only in language such as thoroughly or with care but also in the frequency of justification. In this description of your materials and methods, you need to communicate not only This is exactly what I did/used but also I had good reasons for those decisions. Justification enables the reader to trust the choices you made.
    许多作者认为，这一部分只是对所做或使用的内容进行客观的描述;事实上，这一部分具有很强的说服力和沟通性。我们不仅在诸如彻底或谨慎的语言中看到这一点，而且在辩护的频率中也看到这一点。在对你的材料和方法的描述中，你不仅需要传达这正是我所做/使用的，而且我有很好的理由做出这些决定。合理性使读者相信你所做的选择。
    Sometimes background information is given in the Present Simple to justify choices made. For example, you may have chosen a particular material because of its properties; if so, say what those properties are (Th is material is able to…). You may have chosen specific equipment or soft ware because of what it can do; if so, say what that is. In Sentence 2, we understand that the writer chose this geographical area because it had been previously validated as an appropriate location by other researchers.
    有时候，一般现在时会给出背景信息来证明所做的选择。例如，你可能选择了一种特定的材料，因为它的属性;如果是这样，说这些属性是什么（这是材料能够...）。你可能已经选择了特定的设备或软件，因为它可以做什么;如果是这样，说这是什么。在句子2中，我们理解作者选择这个地理区域是因为它以前被其他研究人员证实为合适的位置。

    If I gave a general overview at the start of this subsection, why should I also give an overview of the procedure itself?
    如果我在本小节的开头给出了一个总体概述，那么我为什么还要给予程序本身的概述呢？
    As you saw in Section 1.2.4, the beginning of a paragraph oft en signals the beginning of a new topic, and providing an introductory sentence is a reader-friendly technique. In addition, the overview in Sentence 3, like the one at the start of the subsection, enables the writer to move in a ‘topdown’ direction by creating a general framework into which the details can be easily slotted. Because the reader knows from the start how many samples were tested and what was done with them, both reader and writer share the same clear picture. These sentences oft en start with phrases like Most of the tests or In all cases (see the vocabulary list in Section 2.4.2).
    正如你在1.2.4节中看到的，一个段落的开头往往意味着一个新主题的开始，提供一个介绍性的句子是一个读者友好的技巧。此外，第三句中的概述，就像小节开头的概述一样，通过创建一个可以轻松插入细节的总体框架，使作者能够沿着“自上而下”的方向前进。因为读者从一开始就知道测试了多少个样本以及对它们做了什么，所以读者和作者都有同样清晰的画面。这些句子通常以Most of the tests或In all cases（参见2.4.2节中的词汇表）这样的短语开头。

    在第4句中，“将样品1-9收集在充分冲洗的25 ml棕色玻璃瓶中，将其填充至顶部，然后紧密密封以防止污染”。作者提供了所做和使用的细节，并表明采取了谨慎措施。
    How much detail do I need to provide?
    我需要提供多少细节？
    If you’re not certain that all readers are familiar with the precise details of your methodology, it is better to give slightly too much information than too little. By the time you write up your research you will probably have repeated your experiments or simulations many times and so you are very familiar with the materials, quantities, equipment, soft ware, the sequence or steps in the procedure and the time taken for each step. Because of this familiarity, specific details (the size of the bottles in Sentence 5, for example) may seem obvious to you, but those details may not be obvious to every reader. If you want another researcher to be able to reproduce your work and obtain similar results, you should include every specification and detail.
    如果你不能确定所有的读者都熟悉你的方法的精确细节，那么最好是给予稍微多一点的信息。当你写你的研究时，你可能已经重复了很多次你的实验或模拟，所以你非常熟悉材料，数量，设备，软件，程序中的顺序或步骤以及每个步骤所花费的时间。由于这种熟悉，具体的细节（例如句子5中瓶子的大小）对你来说可能是显而易见的，但这些细节对每个读者来说可能并不明显。如果你想让其他研究人员能够复制你的工作并获得类似的结果，你应该包括每一个规格和细节。
    Note that in this sentence, the writer uses thoroughly, filled to the top and tightly to communicate to the reader that the work was carried out with care. Remember that your aim in writing the paper is not only to say what you did and found, but also to make sure that your reader accepts the conclusions at the end of your paper. In order to do this, the reader has to accept your results — but to accept your results s/he must first accept your methodology. For this reason, it is important to present yourself as a competent researcher who carries out procedures accurately and with care.
    请注意，在这句话中，作者使用彻底，充满顶部和紧密地向读者传达工作是精心进行的。记住，你写论文的目的不仅仅是说出你做了什么和发现了什么，还要确保你的读者接受你论文结尾的结论。为了做到这一点，读者必须接受你的结果-但要接受你的结果，他/她必须首先接受你的方法。出于这个原因，重要的是要把自己作为一个称职的研究人员，准确和谨慎地执行程序。
    Notice the use of 25 ml in Sentence 4. ml is the SI (Système International d’Unités) symbol for millilitre. Check the SI to make sure that you are using the correct symbol. Th ere is oft en a space between the quantity/number and the SI symbol; in addition, although SI symbols look like abbreviations they are not, and therefore should not be followed by a period.
    注意句子4中使用的25 ml。ml是SI（国际单位制）的毫升符号。检查SI以确保您使用正确的符号。在数量/数字和SI符号之间通常有一个空格;此外，尽管SI符号看起来像缩写，但它们不是，因此后面不应该有句号。

    在第5句中，"装满的瓶子被直接运到阅读大学的两个独立的实验室，在那里，它们被用标准的方法进行分析，这些方法被适当地简化以处理少量的水。“作者继续详细描述了所做的事情，使用的语言传达了谨慎的意思。
    Can you see which words in Sentence 5 communicate to the reader that care was taken? Th e writer could just have written Th e filled bottles were shipped to two laboratories and analysed using standard methods miniaturised to handle small quantities of water, but including words like directly, separate and suitably communicates reliability.
    你能看出句子5中的哪些词向读者传达了注意的意思吗？作者本可以这样写：装满水的瓶子被运到两个实验室，用标准的方法进行分析，这些方法被用来处理少量的水，但包括直接、分开和适当地传达可靠性等词语。

    In Sentence 6 ‘Samples 10–18 were prepared in our laboratory using a revised version of the precipitation method established by the ISF Institute in Germany.6’ the writer describes what was done by referring to existing methods in the literature.
    在第6句中，“样品10-18是在我们的实验室中使用德国ISF研究所建立的沉淀法的修订版制备的。6 "作者通过参考文献中的现有方法描述了所做的工作。
    Why should I refer to other research; why not just describe the method I used?
    为什么我应该参考其他研究;为什么不只是描述我使用的方法？
    One reason is that it is unlikely that you created the entire method you used all by yourself. In many cases part of it will be taken from a method used or discovered by someone else and their method may be very well known, so if you give the research reference you do not need to give every detail. Giving the research reference, therefore, provides you with a shortcut. You will find vocabulary for this in Option 1 in Section 2.4.
    一个原因是，您不太可能独自创建您使用的整个方法。在许多情况下，它的一部分将采取从一个方法使用或发现的其他人和他们的方法可能是非常有名的，所以如果你给予的研究参考，你不需要给予每一个细节。因此，提供研究参考为您提供了一条捷径。你可以在2.4节的选项1中找到相关词汇。
    But if the reference is available in the literature, why does the writer need to give any details? Why can’t readers just go to the library, find the reference and read it themselves?
    但是，如果参考文献中有，为什么作者需要给予任何细节？为什么读者不能去图书馆，找到参考资料，自己读呢？
    In this case, the writer provides basic details of the method because some readers may not be familiar with it and it is not always appropriate to send readers to the library or Internet to look up a reference. It’s a matter of professional courtesy for writers to describe the procedures, tests, equipment or materials they used even when they are used in a way that is identical to the reference. Remember to use the Present Simple for this kind of background information (This method obtains) and to switch back to the Past Simple when you return to describing what you did.
    在这种情况下，作者提供了该方法的基本细节，因为一些读者可能不熟悉它，而且送读者去图书馆或互联网查阅参考文献并不总是合适的。对于作家来说，描述他们使用的程序、测试、设备或材料是专业礼貌的问题，即使它们的使用方式与参考文献相同。记住对这类背景信息使用现在简式(此方法获得)，并在返回到描述您所做的事情时切换回过去简式。
    Comparisons between your materials and methods and those of other researchers in the same field are a legitimate topic for the Methodology section. It is common to keep previous or current research procedures clearly in your readers’ view so that they can see how your work is different from other work in the area. Either your method is identical to others you mention (Option 1 in the vocabulary list in Section 2.4), or it is similar (Option 2 in the vocabulary list), or it is significantly different, in which case the differences between your materials/method and those of other researchers in the same field may even represent the actual contribution of your paper/thesis itself (Option 3).
    将你的材料和方法与同一领域的其他研究人员的材料和方法进行比较是方法学部分的一个合理主题。通常，在读者的视野中清晰地保留以前或当前的研究程序，以便他们可以看到您的工作与该领域的其他工作有何不同。要么你的方法与你提到的其他方法相同（第2.4节词汇表中的选项1），要么相似（词汇表中的选项2），要么显著不同，在这种情况下，你的材料/方法与同一领域其他研究人员的材料/方法之间的差异甚至可能代表你的论文/论文本身的实际贡献（选项3）。
    When you refer to the work of other researchers, be careful about the location of your reference notation in the sentence; you may accidentally credit someone with work they have not done — perhaps even with your own work! Remember that reference notations do not automatically go at the end of a sentence.
    当你提到其他研究者的工作时，要注意你的参考符号在句子中的位置;你可能会意外地把别人没有做过的工作归功于他们-甚至可能是你自己的工作！请记住，引用符号不会自动放在句子的末尾。
    It is sometimes appropriate or necessary to mention the effects of the procedures you used. However, it is not a good idea to discuss them or comment at this stage. If you go into too much detail you may leave yourself with nothing to write about in the Results section. Interestingly, it is common to provide further details about the methodology in the Results section. Sometimes the Methodology section just provides basic parameters and the method itself is detailed in the Results section in relation to the results obtained.
    有时，提及您所使用的程序的效果是适当的或必要的。但是，在这个阶段讨论或评论它们并不是一个好主意。如果你进入太多的细节，你可能会让自己在结果部分没有什么可写的。有趣的是，通常在结果部分提供有关方法的更多细节。有时，方法部分仅提供基本参数，方法本身在结果部分中与所获得的结果相关。

    在第7句中，“该方法通过加入BaCl 2·2 H2O获得沉淀;所得沉淀可以容易地洗涤和储存。”作者提供了有关该方法的更详细的信息，并表明它是一个很好的选择。
    Justification is common throughout this section; as before, the aims are to answer possible criticisms or doubts about your choices, to assure the reader that your choices were made on the basis of good reasons and to give those reasons. We oft en see justification of significant choices and the reason for rejecting alternative options given in full. As mentioned earlier, this is because it is essential that your reader accepts the decisions you made about your methodology.
    在这一节中，论证是常见的;和以前一样，目的是回答可能对你的选择的批评或怀疑，向读者保证你的选择是基于好的理由，并给予这些理由。我们经常看到重大选择的理由和拒绝替代选择的理由都是充分的。如前所述，这是因为读者必须接受你对方法论所做的决定。

    在第8句中，“随后将样品运送至ISF，通过加速器质谱法（AMS）进行分析”。作者提供了该方法的更多细节。
    It is interesting to note that, as mentioned earlier, you need to do more than just provide details of what you did and used; this is the only sentence in this section that gives details and nothing more — every other sentence has an additional function.
    值得注意的是，正如前面提到的，你需要做的不仅仅是提供你所做和使用的细节;这是本节中唯一一个给出细节的句子，没有更多的-每一个其他的句子都有一个额外的功能。

    在第9句中，“使用的所有管道都是不锈钢的，尽管有两个样品由于与塑料的短暂接触而面临氟氯化碳污染的风险，但样品之间的差异可以忽略不计。”作者提到了方法上可能存在的一个困难。
    Doesn’t this discuss a result of what was done?
    这不是讨论了所做的事情的结果吗？
    No, it’s actually saying that the problems in the methodology didn’t affect the results. Sometimes you do need to mention results in this section, but only if the preliminary results were used to modify or develop the design of the main experiments/simulations.
    不，它实际上是说，方法中的问题并没有影响结果。有时，您确实需要在本节中提及结果，但前提是初步结果用于修改或开发主要实验/模拟的设计。
    Why should I mention problems in the methodology? Won’t it make me look bad?
    为什么要说方法论上的问题？不会让我难堪吗？
    In fact the opposite is true. In the first place, if you don’t mention the imperfections in your work, it may look as though you are not aware of them, which gives a very poor impression. So you look far more professional if you do mention them. If you ignore or try to hide imperfections (such as a data set which was too small, equipment or soft ware that was not ideal) and your readers notice them, they will begin to doubt your legitimacy as a researcher, which affects their acceptance of your results and conclusions.
    事实上，情况正好相反。首先，如果你不提你工作中的不完美之处，它可能看起来好像你没有意识到它们，这给人一个很差的印象。如果你提到他们，你看起来会更专业。如果你忽略或试图隐藏不完美之处（例如数据集太小，设备或软件不理想），并且你的读者注意到了它们，他们将开始怀疑你作为研究人员的合法性，这会影响他们对你的结果和结论的接受。
    Second, whenever you finish a piece of research, there is a good chance that you have learned enough from the problems encountered during the project to do it better next time. Should you delay writing it up while you repeat the work and improve your technique? What if you learn more this time too; should you delay again while you do it again? And again? If you do, you may never actually write it up. An acceptable option is to write up the research and acknowledge the problems or difficulties you encountered. In fact, it’s not only considered acceptable to mention them in this section, it’s much better to do it here rather than wait until the end. It isn’t considered appropriate to mention limitations or imperfections for the first time when you are discussing suggestions for future work in the Discussion/Conclusion.
    其次，无论何时你完成了一项研究，你都很有可能从项目中遇到的问题中学到了足够的东西，以便下次做得更好。当你重复这项工作并提高你的技术时，你是否应该推迟写它？如果你这次也学到了更多的东西呢？你应该再次拖延吗？又一次？如果你这样做，你可能永远不会真正写出来。一个可以接受的选择是写研究报告，并承认你遇到的问题或困难。事实上，在这一节中提到它们不仅被认为是可以接受的，而且在这里提到它们比等到最后更好。在讨论/结论中讨论对未来工作的建议时，首次提及局限性或不完善之处被认为是不合适的。
    But how can I talk about problems in my work without looking like a failure?
    Use vocabulary that minimises the problem, minimises your responsibility, maximises the good aspects and suggests a solution. In the example above, the writer has acknowledged that there was a problem and then minimised its effects (variation among samples was negligible). This is a standard way of dealing with the need to talk about problems. You can find examples of the language needed to refer to problems and difficulties in a conventional, professional way in the vocabulary list in Section 2.4.
    使用词汇，尽量减少问题，尽量减少你的责任，最大限度地发挥好的方面，并提出解决方案。在上面的例子中，作者承认存在问题，然后将其影响降至最低（样本之间的差异可以忽略不计）。这是一个标准的方式来处理需要谈论的问题。你可以在2.4节的词汇表中找到一些例子，这些例子是用常规的、专业的方式来说明问题和困难所需要的语言。

    2.3.3 The model

    2.3.3模型
    Here are the sentence descriptions we have collected:
    以下是我们收集的句子描述：
    In Sentence 1 the writer offers a general overview of the subsection.
    在第1句中，作者对该小节作了一个概述。
    In Sentence 2 the writer provides background information and justification.
    在第2句中，作者提供了背景信息和理由。
    In Sentence 3 the writer provides an overview of the procedure/ method itself.
    在句子3中，作者提供了程序/方法本身的概述。
    In Sentence 4 the writer provides details about what was done and used and shows that care was taken.
    在第4句中，作者提供了所做和使用的细节，并表明采取了谨慎措施。
    In Sentence 5 the writer continues to describe what was done in detail, using language which communicates that care was taken.
    在第5句中，作者继续详细描述了所做的事情，使用的语言传达了谨慎的意思。
    In Sentence 6 the writer describes what was done by referring to existing methods in the literature.
    在第6句中，作者通过参考文献中现有的方法描述了所做的工作。· In Sentence 7 the writer provides more detailed information about the method and shows it to have been a good choice. 在第7句中，作者提供了关于该方法的更详细的信息，并表明它是一个很好的选择。In Sentence 8 the writer provides more details of the method.在第8句中，作者提供了该方法的更多细节。In Sentence 9 the writer mentions a possible difficulty in the methodology.在第9句中，作者提到了方法论上可能存在的困难。We can streamline these so that our model has FOUR basic components. Unlike the Introduction model, in which all the items of each component are likely to be used, this is a ‘menu’ from which you select items appropriate to your research topic and the journal you are submitting to. If you constructed the equipment yourself you won’t need to ‘give the source of’ the equipment used in component 1. If there were no problems, you won’t need the fourth component at all.我们可以简化这些，使我们的模型有四个基本组成部分。与介绍模型不同，在介绍模型中，每个组件的所有项目都可能被使用，这是一个“菜单”，您可以从中选择适合您的研究主题和您提交的期刊的项目。如果你自己建造了设备，你就不需要“给予”组件1中使用的设备的来源。如果没有问题，你根本不需要第四个组件。![](https://cdn.jsdelivr.net/gh/YangQingHui66/CDN/blog-img/science/2-22.png) 2.3.4 Testing the model2.3.4测试模型The next step is to look at the way this model works in a real Materials/ Methods section (remember it may not be called Materials and Methods) and in the target articles you have selected. Here are some full-length Methodology sections from real research articles. Read them through, and mark the model components (1, 2, 3 or 4) wherever you think you see them. For example, if you think the first sentence corresponds to number 1 in the model, write 1 next to it, etc.下一步是在真实的材料/方法部分（记住它可能不叫材料和方法）和你选择的目标文章中看看这个模型是如何工作的。这里有一些来自真实的研究文章的完整的方法论部分。通读一遍，并在您认为看到的任何地方标记模型组件（1、2、3或4）。例如，如果你认为第一个句子对应于模型中的数字1，那么在它旁边写上1，等等。`

    Effects of H2O on structure of acid-catalysed SiO2 sol-gel films
    水对酸催化SiO2溶胶-凝胶薄膜结构的影响
    Experimental procedure
    实验程序
    Equal volumes of tetraethylorthosilicate (TEOS) and ethanol were mixed and stirred vigorously for 10 min at room temperature. Th en 0.1 M HCl was gradually added to the solutions, until a water to TEOS molar ratio of R = 2 was attained. Additional deionised water was added to give solutions with R = 3, 4 and 5, so that for all solutions the molecular ration TEOS:HCl was maintained, as summarised in Table 1. Th e solutions were placed in the refluxing bath immediately aft er mixing, and the temperature of the bath was increased to 70°C in 15 min, while stirring, and kept there for 2 h. Th e solutions were then aged for 24 h at room temperature, before being diluted with an equal volume of EtOH and stirred for 10 min, to give the solution used for spin coating. All the chemicals were obtained from Aldrich Chemicals Ltd.
    将等体积的原硅酸四乙酯（TEOS）和乙醇混合并在室温下剧烈搅拌10分钟。然后将0.1M HCl逐渐加入到溶液中，直到水与TEOS的摩尔比达到R = 2。将另外的去离子水加入到给予溶液中，得到R = 3、4和5的溶液，使得对于所有溶液，保持TEOS：HCl的分子比，如表1中总结的。在混合后立即将溶液置于水浴中，在搅拌的同时在15分钟内将浴的温度升高至70°C，并在此保持2小时。然后将溶液在室温下老化24小时，然后用等体积的EtOH稀释并搅拌10分钟，得到给予用于旋涂的溶液。所有化学品均购自Aldrich Chemicals Ltd.。
    The sols were dispensed on p-type, 75 mm diameter silicon wafers, through a 0.1 µm filter (PTFE Whatman, obtained from BDH Merk Ltd), and thereafter the substrate was spun at 2000 rpm for 15 s. Th e coated substrate was baked at 100°C for 5 min, and then cleaved into 10 pieces. Each piece was baked in air at a different temperature, in the range from 100 to 1000°C, for 30 min. Th e samples were kept in covered petri dishes for a few days in room conditions before the experiments were continued; this allows the completion of surface hydroxylation, and gave reproducible ellipsometer results when water is used as an adsorbate.
    通过0.1 μm过滤器（PTFE Whatman，得自BDH Merk Ltd）将溶胶分配在p型、75 mm直径的硅晶片上，然后将基底以2000 rpm旋转15 s。将涂覆的基底在100°C下烘烤5分钟，然后切成10片。将每片样品在空气中在不同温度（100至1000°C）下烘烤30 min。在继续实验之前，将样品在室内条件下在带盖培养皿中保存数天;这允许完成表面羟基化，并在水用作吸附质时给出可重现的椭圆偏振仪结果。
    Th e thickness and refractive index of the samples were measured using a Rudolph AutoEl III ellipsometer, with an operating wavelength of 633 nm, and precisions of about ±0.002 and ±3 Å in index and thickness, respectively. For microporous films, the measured index is strongly dependent on relative humidity, because of condensation of water in the pores. By measuring the dependence of index on humidity, information about porosity can be obtained. We have extended this technique to the use of diff erent adsorbate species, in order to probe pore sizes [3]; this, for the sake of brevity, we call molecular probe ellipsometry. In this technique, the film is placed in a sealed chamber on the sample stage of the ellipsometer; first dry N2 gas is passed through the chamber to empty the pores of any condensed adsorbate, and then N2 having been bubbled through the liquid adsorbate is passed over the sample to fill the pores; in each case the refractive index is measured. By assuming that all the accessible pores in dry and saturated atmospheres are completely empty or filled with adsorbate, respectively, the pore volume and index of the solid skeleton can be determined by an extension of the Lorentz-Lorenz relation [8] where nf, ns and np are the refractive indices of the film, solid skeleton and pores, respectively, and vp is the volume fraction porosity. Measurement of nf for both the dry and saturated films allows both vp and ns to be determined with the assumption that np has the same value as that of the bulk adsorbate in the saturated case, and of air (np = 1) in the dry case.
    样品的厚度和折射率使用Rudolph AutoEl III椭偏仪测量，工作波长为633 nm，折射率和厚度的精度分别为约±0.002和±3 μ m。对于微孔膜，测量的折射率强烈依赖于相对湿度，因为水在孔中冷凝。通过测量折射率对湿度的依赖性，可以获得关于孔隙度的信息。我们已经将这种技术扩展到使用不同的吸附物种类，以探测孔径[3];为了简洁起见，我们称之为分子探针椭圆偏振法。在该技术中，将膜放置在椭圆偏振仪的样品台上的密封室中;首先使干燥的N2气体通过室以清空任何冷凝的吸附物的孔，然后使已经鼓泡通过液体吸附物的N2通过样品以填充孔;在每种情况下测量折射率。通过假设干燥和饱和气氛中的所有可接近孔分别完全空或充满吸附物，固体骨架的孔体积和指数可以通过洛伦兹-洛伦兹关系式[8]的扩展来确定，其中nf，ns和np分别是膜，固体骨架和孔的折射率，vp是体积分数孔隙率。干燥和饱和膜的nf测量允许vp和ns两者在假设np具有与饱和情况下的本体吸附物和干燥情况下的空气（np = 1）的值相同的值的情况下被确定。
    In order to empty the pores, an initial high fl ow rate of N2 was used for a few minutes and the rate was then reduced to 1000 sccm (standard c.c per minute) for 15 min. the fl ow rate was kept at 100 sccm for 15 min to fill the pores. The low flow rate in this case reduces the likelihood of cooling of the sample surface, which could cause condensation on the external film surface. Comparison of the measured film thickness for wet and dry atmospheres indicated that this did not occur. The temperature inside the chamber was monitored by a thermocouple to ensure that there was no drift or alteration due to gas fl ow. In each case, the measurement was recorded once repeatable readings were obtained. Th e adsorbates used are listed in Table 2. Their average diameters were estimated using a combination of bond length data [9] and Van der Waals atomic radii [10]. All were obtained from Aldrich Chemical Ltd, except C24H44O8 obtained from Fluka Chemie AG.
    为了清空孔，使用初始高流速的N2持续几分钟，然后将流速降低至1000 sccm（标准c.c./分钟）持续15分钟。将流速保持在100 sccm持续15分钟以填充孔。在这种情况下，低流速降低了样品表面冷却的可能性，这可能导致外膜表面上的冷凝。比较潮湿和干燥气氛下测得的膜厚度表明，这并没有发生。通过热电偶监测腔室内的温度，以确保不存在由于气体流动引起的漂移或改变。在每种情况下，一旦获得可重复读数，就记录测量值。所用吸附物列于表2中。使用键长数据[9]和货车范德华原子半径[10]的组合来估计它们的平均直径。除了C24 H44 O 8购自Fluka Chemie AG外，所有均购自Aldrich Chemical Ltd。
    The optical quality of the films was first studied qualitatively by visual examination, and by optical microscopy. The homogeneity of the films was then investigated quantitatively by measuring the intensity of scattered light resulting from oblique reflection of a laser beam from the film-coated silicon substrate. A helium-neon laser beam, having a wavelength of 633 nm, was directed onto the sample, through a chopping wheel, at an angle 59° from the normal. Th e specularly reflected beam was absorbed onto a black card, and the scattered light was collected at normal incidence to the sample using a ×10 microscope objective, and measured using a silicon photodiode and a lock-in amplifier. Th e position of lens and angle of incidence were fixed during measurements.
    首先通过目视检查和光学显微镜定性研究膜的光学质量。然后，通过测量激光束从膜涂覆的硅衬底的斜反射产生的散射光的强度，定量地研究膜的均匀性。将波长为633 nm的氦氖激光束通过斩波轮以与法线成59°的角度引导到样品上。镜面反射的光束被吸收到一张黑卡上，散射光以垂直入射到样品的方式使用×10显微镜物镜收集，并使用硅光电二极管和锁定放大器进行测量。在测量过程中固定透镜的位置和入射角。
    The film stress, σf, can be determined by measuring the resulting substrate curvature [11], according to Stoney’s formula:
    根据Stoney公式，可以通过测量所得衬底曲率[11]来确定薄膜应力σf：

    where rs and rf are the radii of curvature of the bare substrate and substrate with film, respectively; Es, ts and vs are the Young’s modulus, thickness and Poisson’s ratio of the silicon substrate, respectively, and tf is the thickness of the film. Tensile stresses are positive and compressive stresses negative; thus, a positive radius of curvature denotes a convex film surface. Entire 75 mm diameter wafers were used, and curvature was measured from plots of surface profile along 30 mm lines over the central part of the film surface using a Dektak IIA auto-levelling profilometer. To reduce inaccuracy caused by lack of axial symmetry in the wafer curvature, two scans were made, in orthogonal directions, for each measurement, and the inverse radii thus obtained were averaged. Care was taken not to use wafers which had a substantially asymmetric curvature before deposition. Wafer thicknesses, measured with a micrometer, were 390 ± 3 µm. Final film thicknesses were measured by ellipsometry and checked by patterned etching and profilometry, and interim thicknesses were estimated by interpolation. Equivalent single-layer thickness measurements indicate that the assumption that final thickness is proportional to number of layers is sufficiently accurate. For Es/ (1 − vs), the value 180 GPa was used [11].
    其中rs和rf分别是裸衬底和具有膜的衬底的曲率半径; Es、ts和vs分别是硅衬底的杨氏模量、厚度和泊松比，并且tf是膜的厚度。拉伸应力为正，压缩应力为负;因此，正的曲率半径表示凸的膜表面。使用整个75 mm直径的晶片，并使用Dektak IIA自动调平轮廓仪从膜表面中心部分上沿沿着30 mm线的表面轮廓图测量曲率。为了减少由于晶片曲率缺乏轴对称性而引起的不准确性，对于每次测量，在正交方向上进行两次扫描，并且将由此获得的倒数半径平均。注意不要使用在沉积之前具有基本上不对称曲率的晶片。用千分尺测量的晶片厚度为390 ± 3 µm。最终的膜厚度测量椭圆偏振法和检查图案化蚀刻和轮廓，和临时厚度估计插值。等效单层厚度测量表明，最终厚度与层数成比例的假设是足够准确的。对于Es/（1-vs），使用了180 GPa的值[11]。
    In order to give an indication of the effect of water content on stress, 10 layers were deposited for each R value, using 10 s rapid thermal annealing at 1000°C in all cases.
    为了给予水含量对应力的影响的指示，对于每个R值沉积10层，在所有情况下在1000 ℃下使用10 s快速热退火。

    Infrared imaging of defects heated by a sonic pulse
    声脉冲加热下缺陷的红外成像
    ii) Experiment
    ii）实验
    Our experimental setup is shown in Fig. 1. The source of the sonic excitation is a Branson, Model 900 MA 20 kHz ultrasonic welding generator, with a Model GK-5 hand-held gun. Th e source has a maximum power of 1 kW, and is triggered to provide a short (typically 50–200 ms duration) output pulse to the gun. The gun contains a piezoelectric transducer that couples to the specimen through the 1.3-cm-diam tip of a steel horn. In the laboratory setup, as can be seen in Fig. 1, we use a mechanical fixture to hold the sonic horn firmly against the sample surface. Th is setup uses a machine slide to provide reproducible alignment of the horn. Typically, a piece of soft Cu sheet is placed between the tip of the horn and the specimen to provide good sound transmission. Th e location of the source on the sample is chosen primarily for convenience of geometrical alignment, and since it has minimal effect on the resulting sonic IR images, typically is not changed during the course of the inspection. Sound waves at frequencies of 20 kHz in metals such as aluminium or steel have wavelengths on the order of tens of centimetres, and propagate with appreciable amplitude over distances much longer than a wavelength. For typical complex-shaped industrial parts (see, for example, the aluminium automotive part shown in Fig. 1), reflections from various boundaries of the specimen introduce countless conversions among the vibrational modes, leading to a very complicated pattern of sound within the specimen during the time that the pulse is applied. Since the speed of sound in solids is typically on the order of a few km/s, this sound field completely insonifies the regions under inspection during the time that the excitation pulse is applied. If a subsurface interface is present, say a fatigue crack in a metal, or a delamination in a composite structure, the opposing surfaces at the interface will be caused to move by the various sound modes present there. Th e complexity of the sound is such that relative motion of these surfaces will ordinarily have components both in the plane of the crack and normal to it. Thus, the surfaces will ‘rub’ and ‘slap’ against one another, with a concomitant local dissipation of mechanical energy. Th is energy dissipation causes a temperature rise, which propagates in the material through thermal diffusion. We monitor this dissipation through its effect on the surface temperature distribution. Th e resolution of the resulting images depends on the depth of the dissipative source as well as on the time at which the imaging is carried out.
    我们的实验装置如图1所示。声激励源是Branson 900 MA型20 kHz超声波焊接发生器，带有GK-5型手持焊枪。该源的最大功率为1 kW，并且被触发以向枪提供短（通常为50-200 ms持续时间）输出脉冲。该枪包含一个压电传感器，通过1.3厘米直径的钢喇叭尖端耦合到试样。在实验室设置中，如图1所示，我们使用机械夹具将声波喇叭牢固地固定在样品表面。此设置使用机器滑块来提供喇叭的可再现对准。通常情况下，一块软铜片放置在喇叭的尖端和样品之间，以提供良好的声音传输。源在样品上的位置主要是为了便于几何对准而选择的，并且由于其对所得到的声波IR图像具有最小的影响，因此通常在检查过程中不改变。在诸如铝或钢的金属中，频率为20 kHz的声波具有几十厘米量级的波长，并且以明显的振幅在比波长长得多的距离上传播。对于典型的形状复杂的工业部件（例如，见图1所示的铝汽车部件），来自试样的各种边界的反射在振动模式之间引入了无数的转换，导致在施加脉冲的时间内试样内的声音非常复杂的模式。由于固体中的声速通常在几km/s的量级上，因此在施加激励脉冲的时间期间，该声场完全声穿透被检查的区域。如果存在表面下界面，比如金属中的疲劳裂纹，或者复合结构中的分层，则界面处的相对表面将被存在于那里的各种声音模式引起移动。声音的复杂性使得这些表面的相对运动通常在裂纹平面内和垂直于裂纹平面的方向上都有分量。因此，表面将相互“摩擦”和“拍打”，伴随着机械能的局部耗散。这种能量耗散导致温度上升，其通过热扩散在材料中传播。我们通过其对表面温度分布的影响来监测这种耗散。所得到的图像的分辨率取决于耗散源的深度以及进行成像的时间。
    The IR camera that we used in the setup that is shown in Fig. 1 is a Raytheon Radiance HS that contains a 256×256 InSb focal plane array, and operates in the 3–5 µm spectral region. It is sensitive (with a 1 ms integration time) to surface temperature changes of ~0.03°C, and can be operated at full frame rates up to 140 Hz with that sensitivity. We have also observed the effects reported here with a considerably less expensive, uncooled, microbolometer focal plane array camera, operating in the long wavelength (7–10 µm) of the IR.
    我们在图1所示的设置中使用的红外相机是Raytheon Radiance HS，它包含256×256 InSb焦平面阵列，工作在3-5 µm光谱区域。它对约0.03°C的表面温度变化敏感（积分时间为1 ms），并且可以在高达140 Hz的全帧速率下工作。我们还观察到了这里报告的效果，使用了一种相当便宜的非制冷微测辐射热计焦平面阵列相机，在IR的长波长（7-10 µm）下工作。

    The height of biomolecules measured with the atomic force microscope depends on electrostatic interactions
    用原子力显微镜测量的生物分子的高度取决于静电相互作用
    MATERIALS AND METHODS
    材料和方法
    Biological samples
    生物样品
    Aquaporin-1 (AQP1) from human erythrocyte solubilized in octyl-f3-glucopyranoside was reconstituted in the presence of Escherichia coli phospholipids to form two-dimensional (2D) crystalline sheets (Walz et al., 1994). Th e 2D crystals were prepared at a concentration of -0.5 mg protein/ml and 0.25 mg/ml lipid in 0.25 M NaCl, 20 mM MgCl2, 20 mM 2-(N-morpholino) ethanesulfonic acid (MES) (pH 6).
    在大肠杆菌磷脂的存在下重构溶解在辛基-β-吡喃葡萄糖苷中的来自人红细胞的水通道蛋白-1（AQP 1）以形成二维（2D）结晶片（Walz等人，1994年）。在0.25 M NaCl、20 mM MgCl 2、20 mM 2-（N-吗啉代）乙磺酸（MES）（pH 6）中以约0.5 mg蛋白质/ml和0.25 mg/ml脂质的浓度制备2D晶体。
    Hexagonally packed intermediate (HPI) layer from Deinococcus radiodurans, a kind gift of Dr. W. Baumeister, was extracted from whole cells (strain SARK) with lithium dodecyl sulfate, and purified on a Percoll density gradient (Baumeister et al., 1982). A stock solution (1 mg/ml protein) was stored in distilled water at 4°C.
    耐辐射奇球菌的受阻包装中间层（HPI），是W。Baumeister，用十二烷基硫酸锂从全细胞（菌株SARK）中提取，并在Percoll密度梯度上纯化（Baumeister等人，1982年）。将储备溶液（lmg/ml蛋白质）在4°C下储存在蒸馏水中。
    Purple membranes of Halobacterium salinarium strain ET1001 were isolated as described by Oesterhelt and Stoeckenius (1974). Th e membranes were frozen and stored at −70°C. Aft er thawing, stock solutions (10 mg protein/ml) were kept in distilled water at 4°C.
    如Oesterhelt和Stoeckenius（1974）所述分离盐生盐杆菌菌株ET 1001的紫色膜。将膜冷冻并储存在−70°C下。解冻后，将储备溶液（10 mg蛋白质/ml）保持在4°C的蒸馏水中。
    Porin OmpF trimers from E. coli strain BZ 1 10/PMY222 (Hoenger et al., 1993) solubilized in octyl-polyoxyethylene were mixed with solubilised dimyristoyl phosphatidylcholine (99% purity; Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, MO) at a lipid-to-protein ratio (w/w) of 0.2 and a protein concentration of 1 mg/ml. Th e mixture was reconstituted as previously described (Hoenger et al., 1993) in a temperature-controlled dialysis device (Jap et al., 1992). Th e dialysis buff er was 20 mM HEPES, pH 7.4, 100 mM NaCl, 20 mM MgCl2, 0.2 mM dithiothreitol, 3 mM azide.
    孔蛋白OmpF三聚体来自E.大肠杆菌菌株BZ 110/PMY 222（Hoenger等人，1993）与溶解的二肉豆蔻酰磷脂酰胆碱（99%纯度; Sigma Chemical Co.，St. Louis，MO），脂质与蛋白质之比（w/w）为0.2，蛋白质浓度为lmg/ml。如前所述重构混合物（Hoenger等人，1993）在温控透析装置中（Jap等，1992年）。透析缓冲液为20 mM HEPES，pH 7.4，100 mM NaCl，20 mM MgCl 2，0.2 mM二硫苏糖醇，3 mM叠氮化物。
    1,2-Dipalmitoyl-phosphatidylethanolamine (DPPE) from Sigma was solubilized in chloroform:hexane (1:1) to a concentration of 1 mg/ml. Th e resulting solution was diluted in buff er solution (150 mM KCl, 10 mM Tris, pH 8.4) to a concentration of 100 µg/ml.
    将来自Sigma的1，2-二棕榈酰-磷脂酰乙醇胺（DPPE）溶解在氯仿：己烷（1：1）中至浓度为1 mg/ml。将所得溶液在缓冲液（150 mM KCl，10 mM Tris，pH 8.4）中稀释至100 µg/ml的浓度。
    Layered crystals
    层状晶体
    MoTe2, a layered crystal of the family of transition metal dichalcogenides (Wilson and Yoff e, 1969), was employed to calibrate the piezo scanner of the AFM. It was prepared by chemical vapor transport (CVT), with chlorine or bromine as carrier gases in a temperature gradient of 100°C across the quartz ampule (Jungblut et al., 1992), and was a kind gift of Y. Tomm.
    MoTe 2是过渡金属二硫属化物族的层状晶体（Wilson和Yoff e，1969），用于校准AFM的压电扫描器。其通过化学气相传输（CVT）制备，其中氯或溴作为载气，在100°C的温度梯度下穿过石英安瓿（Jungblut等人，1992），是Y.汤姆
    Muscovite mica (Mica New York Corp., New York) was used as the solid support for all samples. Mica minerals are characterized by their layered crystal structure, and show a perfect basal cleavage that provides atomically fl at surfaces over several hundreds of square microns. Their hydrophilicity and relative chemical inertness (Bailey, 1984) make them suitable for the adsorption of biological macromolecules.
    白云母（云母纽约公司，纽约）用作所有样品的固体载体。云母矿物的特征在于它们的层状晶体结构，并且显示出完美的基底解理，其提供了超过数百平方微米的原子级平坦表面。它们的亲水性和相对化学惰性（Bailey，1984）使它们适合于生物大分子的吸附。
    Atomic force microscopy
    原子力显微镜
    A commercial AFM (Nanoscope III; Digital Instruments, Santa Barbara, CA), equipped with a 120-µm scanner (j-scanner) and a liquid cell, was used. Before use, the liquid cell was cleaned with normal dish cleaner, gently rinsed with ultrapure water, sonicated in ethanol (50 kHz), and sonicated in ultrapure water (50 kHz). Mica was punched to a diameter of −5 mm and glued with waterinsoluble epoxy glue (Araldit; Ciba Geigy AG, Basel, Switzerland) onto a Teflon disc. Its diameter of 25 mm was slightly larger than the diameter of the supporting steel disc. Th e steel disc was required to magnetically mount the sample on to the piezoelectric scanner. Imaging was performed in the error signal mode, acquiring the deflection and height signal simultaneously. The deflection signal was minimized by optimizing gains and scan speed. Th e height images presented were recorded in the contact mode. Th e scan speed was roughly linear to the scan size, at 4–8 lines/s for lower magnifications (frame size 1–25 µm). Th e applied force was corrected manually to compensate for thermal drift . To achieve reproducible forces, cantilevers were selected from a restricted area of one wafer. Th e dimensions of one tip were measured in a scanning electron microscope to calculate the mechanical properties of the cantilever (Butt et al., 1993). Th e 120-µm-long cantilevers purchased from Olympus Ltd. (Tokyo, Japan) had a force constant of k = 0.1 N/m, and the 200-µm-long cantilevers purchased from Digital Instruments had a force constant of 0.15 N/m. All cantilevers used had oxide-sharpened Si3N4 tips.
    使用配备有120 μm扫描仪（j-扫描仪）和液体池的商业AFM（Nanoscope III; Digital Instruments，圣巴巴拉，CA）。使用前，用普通洗碟剂清洁液体池，用超纯水轻轻冲洗，在乙醇（50 kHz）中超声处理，并在超纯水（50 kHz）中超声处理。将云母冲压成-5 mm的直径，并用水不溶性环氧胶（Araldit; Ciba Geigy AG，巴塞尔，瑞士）胶合到特氟隆盘上。其直径为25 mm，略大于支撑钢盘的直径。需要钢盘将样品磁性安装到压电扫描仪上。在误差信号模式下进行成像，同时采集偏转和高度信号。通过优化增益和扫描速度使偏转信号最小化。在接触模式下记录所呈现的高度图像。扫描速度与扫描尺寸大致呈线性关系，对于较低放大倍数（帧尺寸1-25 µm），扫描速度为4-8线/秒。手动校正施加的力以补偿热漂移。为了实现可再现的力，从一个晶片的受限区域选择杠杆。在扫描电子显微镜中测量一个尖端的尺寸以计算悬臂的机械性能（Butt等人，1993年）。购自Olympus Ltd.（Tokyo，Japan）的120 μ m长的杠杆具有k = 0.1 N/m的力常数，购自Digital Instruments的200 μ m长的杠杆具有0.15 N/m的力常数。所有使用的杠杆都有氧化物锐化的Si 3 N4尖端。
    Sample preparation
    样品制备
    To minimize contamination of surfaces during exposure to ambient air, sample supports were prepared immediately before use. All buffers were made with ultrapure water (−18 MDcm−1; Branstead, Boston, MA). Th is water contains fewer hydrocarbons than conventional bidistilled water and fewer macroscopic contaminants, both of which can influence the imaging process. Chemicals were grade p.a. and purchased from Sigma Chemie AG (Buchs, Switzerland). Th e buffers used were Tris-(hydroxymethyl)-aminomethane (from pH 10.2 to pH 7.2), MES (from pH 6.5 to pH 5.5), and citric acid (from pH 5.4 to pH 3.0). Macromolecular samples were checked before use by conventional negative stain electron microscopy (Bremer et al., 1992) and/or by sodium dodecyl sulfate-gel electrophoresis.
    为了最大限度地减少暴露于环境空气期间的表面污染，在使用前立即制备样品载体。所有缓冲液均用超纯水（−18 MDcm−1; Branstead，Boston，MA）制备。这种水比传统的重蒸馏水含有更少的碳氢化合物和更少的宏观污染物，这两者都可以影响成像过程。化学品为p.a.级。购自Sigma Chemie AG（布克斯，瑞士）。使用的缓冲液为三-（羟甲基）-氨基甲烷（pH 10.2至pH 7.2）、MES（pH 6.5至pH 5.5）和柠檬酸（pH 5.4至pH 3.0）。在使用前通过常规负染色电子显微镜检查大分子样品（Bremer等人，1992）和/或通过十二烷基硫酸钠凝胶电泳。
    The samples were diluted to a concentration of 5–10 µg/ml in buff er solution (pH 8.2, 20 mM Tris-HCl, 2100 mM; monovalent electrolyte; except for DPPE, which was not further diluted) before adsorption to freshly cleaved mica. Aft er an adsorption time of 10–60 min, the samples were gently washed with the measuring buff er to remove weakly attached membranes. Th is allowed height measurements at low electrolyte concentrations, at which samples adsorb sparsely to mica (Muller et al., 1997a and 1997b). Experiments requiring constant pH were performed at pH 8.2. Th e isoelectric points of bacteriorhodopsin, AQP1, DPPE, and OmpF are 5.2 (Ross et al., 1989), 6.95 (calculated), −10 (Tatulian, 1993), and 4.64 (calculated), respectively. Th us, at this pH, all samples had a net negative charge, except for DPPE, which had a net positive charge.
    将样品在缓冲溶液（pH 8.2，20 mM Tris-HCl，2100 mM;单价电解质;除DPPE外，其未进一步稀释）中稀释至5-10 μg/ml的浓度，然后吸附至新鲜切割的云母。在10-60分钟的吸附时间之后，用测量缓冲液轻轻洗涤样品以除去弱附着的膜。这是允许在低电解质浓度下进行高度测量的，在该浓度下，样品稀疏地吸附到云母上（Muller等人，1997年a和1997年b）。需要恒定pH的实验在pH 8.2下进行。细菌视紫红质、AQP 1、DPPE和OmpF的等电点为5.2（Ross等人，1989）、6.95（计算）、-10（Tatulian，1993）和4.64（计算）。因此，在该pH下，所有样品都具有净负电荷，除了DPPE，其具有净正电荷。

    Now do the same in your target articles. We hope you obtain good confirmation of the model and can now answer the questions in Section 2.1:
    现在在你的目标文章中做同样的事情。我们希望您能够对模型进行充分的确认，并能够回答第2.1节中的问题：

    • How do I start this section? What type of sentence should I begin with?
      如何开始这一部分？我开始应该用什么类型的句子？
    • What type of information should be in this section, and in what order?
      本节应包含哪些类型的信息，顺序如何？
    • How do I end this section?
      我如何结束这一节？

    2.4 Vocabulary

    2.4词汇
    In order to complete the information you need to write this section of your paper you now need to find appropriate vocabulary for each part of the model. Th e vocabulary in this section is taken from over 600 research articles in different fields, all of which were written by native speakers and published in science journals. Only words/phrases which appear frequently have been included; this means that the vocabulary lists contain words and phrases which are considered normal and acceptable by both writers and editors.
    为了完成你需要写这部分论文的信息，你现在需要为模型的每个部分找到合适的词汇。本节中的词汇来自不同领域的600多篇研究文章，所有这些文章都是由母语人士撰写并发表在科学期刊上的。只有经常出现的单词/短语被包括在内;这意味着词汇表包含作者和编辑认为正常和可接受的单词和短语。
    In the next section we will look at vocabulary for the following seven areas of the model:
    在下一节中，我们将研究模型的以下七个领域的词汇表：
    1. PROVIDE A GENERAL INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF THE MATERIALS/METHODS and GIVE THE SOURCE OF MATERIALS/ EQUIPMENT USED
    1.提供材料/方法的一般介绍和概述，并给予所用材料/设备的来源
    This includes phrases such as In this study, most of the samples were tested using a… as well as verbs such as were supplied by. A good list of commonly-used words and expressions will encourage you to include this in your first sentences.
    这包括短语，如在这项研究中，大多数样本使用...以及动词，如由提供。一个好的常用词和表达的列表会鼓励你在你的第一句话中包括这一点。
    2. SUPPLY ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND INFORMATION
    2.基本背景资料
    This list provides words and phrases used to describe instruments, equipment or locations, and includes items such as parallel to and equidistant. They are essential because the reader needs them in order to visualise or recreate your work.
    该列表提供了用于描述仪器、设备或位置的单词和短语，并包括平行和等距等项目。它们是必不可少的，因为读者需要它们来想象或重新创造你的作品。
    3. PROVIDE SPECIFIC AND PRECISE DETAILS ABOUT MATERIALS AND METHODS (i.e. quantities, temperatures, duration, sequence, conditions, locations, sizes)
    3.提供有关材料和方法的具体和精确的说明（即数量、温度、持续时间、顺序、条件、位置、尺寸）
    This includes verbs which specifically describe what you did/used. Instead of writing only was done or was used, a more specific verb such as optimise or extract can save you time by explaining exactly what was ‘done’.
    这包括具体描述你所做/所用的动词。而不是只写被完成或被使用，一个更具体的动词，如优化或提取可以通过准确地解释什么是“做”来保存你的时间。
    4.JUSTIFY CHOICES MADE
    4.做出的合理选择
    This includes phrases that introduce the reasons for the choices you made, such as in order to. It also includes a list of verbs that specify the advantages of the choices you made, like enable and facilitate.
    这包括介绍你所做选择的原因的短语，例如为了。它还包括一个动词列表，指定您所做选择的优点，如启用和促进。
    5.INDICATE THAT APPROPRIATE CARE WAS TAKEN
    5.表明已采取适当护理
    This includes adjectives (careful) as well as adverbs (carefully), so as to give you maximum flexibility when you are constructing sentences.
    这包括形容词（小心）和副词（小心），以便在你造句时给予最大的灵活性。
    6.RELATE MATERIALS/METHODS TO OTHER STUDIES
    6.将材料/方法用于其他研究
    This provides you with ways to distinguish between procedures/materials/ tests which were exactly the same as those used by other researchers, procedures/materials/tests which were similar to those used by other researchers and procedures/materials/tests which were significantly different.
    这为您提供了区分与其他研究人员使用的程序/材料/测试完全相同的程序/材料/测试、与其他研究人员使用的程序/材料/测试相似的程序/材料/测试以及显著不同的程序/材料/测试的方法。
    7.INDICATE WHERE PROBLEMS OCCURRED
    7.指出问题发生的位置
    This list includes ways of minimising the problem, minimising your responsibility, maximising the good aspects and suggesting a solution to the problem.
    这个列表包括最小化问题的方法，最小化你的责任，最大化好的方面和建议解决问题的方法。

    2.4.1 Vocabulary task

    2.4.1词汇任务
    Look through the Methodology sections in this unit and the Methodology or Experimental sections in your target articles. Underline or highlight all the words and phrases that you think could be used in the seven areas above.
    浏览本单元的方法学部分和你的目标文章的方法学或实验部分。划出或突出所有你认为可以用在以上七个方面的单词和短语。
    A full list of useful language can be found on the next pages. This includes all the appropriate words and phrases you highlighted along with some other common ones. Read through them and check the meaning of any you don’t know in the dictionary. This list will be useful for many years.
    有用的语言的完整列表可以在接下来的页面中找到。这包括所有适当的单词和短语，你突出显示沿着与其他一些常见的。通读一遍，并在字典中查一下你不知道的意思。这份清单将在许多年内有用。

    2.4.2 Vocabulary for the Methodology section

    2.4.2方法学部分的词汇
    1. PROVIDE A GENERAL INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF THE MATERIALS/METHODS and GIVE THE SOURCE OF MATERIALS/ EQUIPMENT USED
    1.提供材料/方法的一般介绍和概述，并给予所用材料/设备的来源
    Some of the vocabulary you need for this is in the Introduction vocabulary list; for example, many of the verbs that describe what you did/used can be found there.
    你需要的一些词汇在介绍词汇表中;例如，许多描述你做了什么/使用了什么的动词都可以在那里找到。
    These verbs fall into three categories: the first includes general verbs related to academic research, such as attempt, consider, conduct, determine, investigate, report, suggest, verify, and most of these can be found in the Introduction vocabulary list. Th e second category contains verbs that specify what you did, such as calculate, extract, isolate, formulate, incorporate, modify, plot, simulate, and these can be found in the vocabulary list below. Th e third category includes verbs which are specific to your field and your research, but which are not useful in other fields, for example clone, dissect, isotype, infuse. Also try:
    这些动词分为三类：第一类包括与学术研究有关的一般动词，如尝试，考虑，进行，确定，调查，报告，建议，验证，其中大部分可以在介绍词汇表中找到。第二类包含的动词指定你做了什么，如计算，提取，隔离，公式化，合并，修改，绘图，模拟，这些都可以在下面的词汇表中找到。第三类动词是你的领域和研究所特有的，但在其他领域没有用，例如克隆、解剖、同种型、注入。还可以尝试：

    • Here are some examples of how these are used:
      The impact tests used in this work were a modified version of…
      在这项工作中使用的冲击测试是一个修改版本的...
    • All reactions were performed in a 27 ml glass reactor…
      所有反应均在27 ml玻璃反应器中进行。
    • All cell lines were generated as previously described in…
      所有细胞系均如先前在...
    • In the majority of the tests, buffers with a pH of 8 were used in order to…
      在大多数测试中，使用pH为8的缓冲液，以...
    • Both experiments were performed in a greenhouse so that…
      这两个实验都是在温室里进行的，所以...
    • The substrate was obtained from the Mushroom Research Centre…
      该基质是从蘑菇研究中心获得的。
    • SSCE glass structures were used in this study to perform…
      SSCE玻璃结构在这项研究中被用来执行…
    • The cylindrical lens was obtained from Newport USA and is shown in Fig. 3.
      圆柱形透镜购自美国纽波特，如图3所示。
    • The material investigated was a standard aluminium alloy; all melts were modified with sodium.
      所研究的材料是标准铝合金;所有熔体都用钠改性。
    • Topographical examination was carried out using a 3-D stylus instrument.
      使用3-D触针仪器进行地形检查。
    • The experiments were conducted at a temperature of 0.5ºC.
      实验在0.5 ℃的温度下进行。

    2. SUPPLY ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND INFORMATION
    2.基本背景资料
    As well as describing standard procedures and techniques you may need to describe the equipment/apparatus or instrument you used or constructed. In order to do this accurately you need good control over the language of spatial location. Make sure you know how to use the words/phrases below. If you are not sure, write down the dictionary definition and use a concordance sampler (which you can find on the Internet) to see how they are used. was/were performed (by/in) was/were provided (by) was/were purchased (from) was/were supplied (by) was/were used as supplied was/were investigated
    除了描述标准程序和技术外，您可能还需要描述您使用或建造的设备/仪器或仪器。为了准确地做到这一点，你需要很好地控制空间位置的语言。确保你知道如何使用下面的单词/短语。如果你不确定，写下字典的定义，并使用一个索引采样器（你可以在互联网上找到），看看他们是如何使用的。被调查的人被调查的人

    Here are some examples of how these are used:
    下面是一些如何使用这些的例子：

    • Porosity was measured at the near end and at the far end of the polished surface.
      在抛光表面的近端和远端测量孔隙率。
    • The compression axis is aligned with the rolling direction…
      压缩轴与轧制方向一致...
    • The source light was polarised horizontally and the sample beam can be scanned laterally.
      源光水平偏振，样品光束可以横向扫描。
    • The mirrors are positioned near the focal plane.
      反射镜位于焦平面附近。
    • Electrodes comprised a 4 mm diam disk of substrate material embedded in a Teflon disk of 15 mm diam.
      电极包括嵌入15 mm直径的Teflon盘中的4 mm直径的基底材料盘。
    • The intercooler was mounted on top of the engine…
      中间冷却器安装在发动机顶部...
    • The concentration of barium decreases towards the edge…
      钡的浓度越靠近边缘越低...
    • Similar loads were applied to the front and side of the box…
      箱子的正面和侧面都有类似的负荷...
    • A laminar flow element was located downstream of the test section of the wind tunnel…
      层流元件位于风洞试验段的下游。

    In which sentence(s) below was the table closest to the wall?
    在下面的哪个句子中，桌子最靠近墙？
    The table was placed against the wall.
    The table was placed next to the wall.
    The table was placed flush with the wall.
    The table was placed in contact with the wall.
    The table was placed right against the wall.
    The table was placed alongside the wall.
    桌子靠墙放着。桌子靠墙放着。桌子与墙平齐.这张桌子被放在紧靠着墙的地方。桌子紧靠着墙放着。桌子靠墙放着。
    In which sentence(s) below was the clock closest to the door?
    在下面哪句话中，时钟离门最近？
    The clock was located just above the door.
    The clock was located slightly above the door.
    The clock was located immediately above the door.
    The clock was located directly above the door.
    The clock was located right above the door.
    钟就在门的上方。时钟位于门的上方。钟就在门的正上方。钟就在门的正上方。钟就在门的正上方。
    Note that half as wide (as) = half the width (of); half as heavy (as) = half the weight (of); twice as long (as) = twice the length (of) and twice as strong (as) = twice the strength (of). Also note that with/having a weight of 20 kg = weighing 20 kg and with/having a width/length of 20 cm = 20 cm wide/long.
    请注意，一半的宽度（as）=一半的宽度（of）;一半的重量（as）=一半的重量（of）;两倍的长度（as）=两倍的长度（of）和两倍的强度（as）=两倍的强度（of）。还请注意，具有/具有20 kg的重量=重20 kg，并且具有/具有20 cm的宽度/长度= 20 cm宽/长。
    3. PROVIDE SPECIFIC AND PRECISE DETAILS ABOUT MATERIALS AND METHODS
    3.提供有关材料和方法的具体和精确说明
    These verbs fall into three categories: the first includes general verbs used in academic research, such as attempt, consider, conduct, determine, investigate, report, suggest, verify, and these can be found in the Introduction vocabulary list (Section 1.4). Th e second category contains technical verbs which are specific to your field and your research, but which are not useful in other fields, for example anneal, calibrate, centrifuge, dissect, fertilise, ionise, infuse. These will not be given here because they are not generally useful. The third category is a set of less technical verbs that specify what was done or used, such as calculate, extract, isolate, formulate, incorporate, modify, plot, simulate. These usually occur in the passive (was/were isolated) and can be found in the vocabulary list below.
    这些动词分为三类：第一类包括学术研究中使用的一般动词，如attempt、consider、conduct、determine、investigate、report、suggest、verify，这些动词可以在引言词汇表（1.4节）中找到。第二类是专门针对你的领域和研究的技术动词，但在其他领域没有用，例如退火、校准、离心分离、解剖、施肥、电离、注入。这里不会给出这些，因为它们通常没有用处。第三类是一组技术性较低的动词，用于指定所做或使用的内容，如计算、提取、分离、公式化、合并、修改、绘图、模拟。这些通常出现在被动语态中（was/were isolated），可以在下面的词汇表中找到。


    **See Section 1.2.2 for other examples of signalling language **
    See box below for infinitives, -ing forms and noun forms of useful verbs. ∅ indicates that a noun form is not available or is not common in this type of structure
    * 见第1.2.2节的其他信号语言的例子 ** 见下面的方框的不定式，-ing形式和名词形式的有用的动词。∅表示名词形式在这类结构中不可用或不常见


    Here are some examples of how these are used:
    下面是一些如何使用这些的例子：

    • To validate the results from the metroscale model, samples were collected from all groups.
      为了验证大城市模型的结果，从所有组中收集了样本。
    • The method of false nearest neighbours was selected in order to determine the embedding dimension.
      为了确定嵌入维数，选择了伪最近邻方法。
    • For the sake of simplicity, only a single value was analysed.
      为简单起见，只分析了一个数值。
    • By partitioning the array, all the multipaths could be identified.
      通过对阵列进行分区，可以识别所有的多路径。
    • Zinc oxide was drawn into the laminate with the intention of enhancing delaminations and cracks.
      氧化锌被拉入层压板中，目的是增强分层和裂纹。
    • The advantage of using three-dimensional analysis was that the out-of-plane stress field could be obtained.
      三维分析的优点是可以得到平面外的应力场。
    • Because FITC was used for both probes, enumeration was carried out using two different slides.
      由于两种探针均使用FITC，因此使用两种不同的载玻片进行计数。
    • The LVDTs were unrestrained, so allowing the sample to move freely.
      LVDT不受限制，因此允许样品自由移动。
    • The cylinder was constructed from steel, which avoided problems of water absorption.
      圆筒由钢制成，避免了吸水问题。

    5. INDICATE THAT APPROPRIATE CARE WAS TAKEN
    Most of the items in the box below are in adverb form, but they also occur in adjective form (e.g. accurate).
    下面方框中的大多数项目是副词形式，但它们也出现在形容词形式中（例如准确）。

    Here are some examples of how these are used:
    下面是一些如何使用这些的例子：

    • A mechanical fixture was employed to hold the sonic horn firmly in place.
      一个机械固定装置被用来将声波喇叭牢固地固定在适当的位置。
    • After being removed, the mouse lungs were frozen and thawed at least three times.
      取出后，将小鼠肺冷冻和解冻至少三次。
    • The specimen was monitored constantly for a period af 24 hours.
      持续监测样本24小时。
    • They were then placed on ice for immediate FACS analysis.
      然后将其置于冰上进行即时FACS分析。
    • Frequent transducer readings were taken to update the stress conditions smoothly.
      频繁读取传感器读数，以顺利更新应力条件。
    • The samples were slowly and carefully sheared to failure.
      将样品缓慢且小心地剪切至失效。

    6.RELATE MATERIALS/METHODS TO OTHER STUDIES
    6.将材料/方法用于其他研究
    There are three ways in which you might want to relate your materials/ methods to those used in other studies.
    有三种方法可以将您的材料/方法与其他研究中使用的材料/方法联系起来。
    Option 1: The procedure/material you used is exactly the same as the one you cite.
    选项1：您使用的程序/材料与您引用的程序/材料完全相同。

    by and of are usually followed by the name of the researcher or research team (by Ross or using the method of Ross et al.) and in is usually followed by the work (in Ross et al. (2003)). Another option is simply to give the research reference at the appropriate place in the sentence, either in brackets or using a superscript number.
    *by和of通常后跟研究人员或研究团队的名称（由Ross或使用Ross等人的方法）。而in通常跟在work之后（in Ross et al.（2003））。另一种选择是简单地在句子的适当位置给予研究参考，或者在括号中，或者使用上标数字。
    Option 2: The procedure/material you used is similar to the one you cite.
    选项2：您使用的程序/材料与您引用的程序/材料相似。

    Option 3: The procedure/material you used is significantly different from the one you cite.
    选项3：您使用的程序/材料与您引用的程序/材料明显不同。


    as you can see, these can be used in Option 2 as well as Option 3. When you use them in Option 2 you may not need to state the differences between the procedure/material you used and the one you cite if they are not significant. In Option 3 those differences or modifications are significant and you should say what they were, especially if they were modifications which improved the procedure/material.
    * 正如您所看到的，这些可以在选项2和选项3中使用。当你在选项2中使用它们时，如果它们不重要，你可能不需要说明你使用的程序/材料与你引用的程序/材料之间的差异。在选项3中，这些差异或修改是重要的，您应该说明它们是什么，特别是如果它们是改进程序/材料的修改。
    Here are some examples of how these are used:
    下面是一些如何使用这些的例子：

    • Developmental evaluation was carried out using the Bayley Scales of Infant Development (Bayley, 1969).
      使用Bayley婴儿发育量表（Bayley，1969）进行发育评价。
    • The size of the Gaussians was adjusted as in (Krissian et al., 2000).
      如在（Krissian et al.，2000年）。
    • The centrifuge is a slightly modified commercially available model, the Beckman J6-HC.
      离心机是稍微改进的市售型号Beckman J6-HC。
    • The protein was overexpressed and purified as reported previously.
      如先前报道的，过表达和纯化蛋白质。
    • A revised version of the Structured Clinical Interview (4th edition) was used.
      使用了结构化临床访谈（第4版）的修订版。
    • We modified the Du and Parker filter to address these shortcomings and we refer to this modified filter as the MaxCurve filter.
      我们修改了Du和帕克滤波器以解决这些缺点，我们将此修改后的滤波器称为MaxCurve滤波器。
    • In our implementation we followed Sato et al. (1998) by using a discrete kernel size.
      在我们的实现中，我们遵循Sato et al.（1998）使用离散的内核大小。

    7.INDICATE WHERE PROBLEMS OCCURRED
    7.指出问题发生的位置


    There is an interesting difference between the phrase future work should and the phrase future work will. When you write future work should you are suggesting a direction for future work and inviting the research community in your field to take up the challenge and produce the research. When you write future work will you are communicating your own plans and intentions to the research community and it should be understood that these plans and intentions belong to you — you’re saying ‘hands off !’ to the rest of the research community and describing a research plan of your own
    *在未来的工作应该和未来的工作将之间有一个有趣的区别。当你写未来的工作时，你应该为未来的工作提出一个方向，并邀请你所在领域的研究团体接受挑战并进行研究。当你写未来的工作时，你是在向研究界传达你自己的计划和意图，应该理解这些计划和意图属于你-你在说“放手！”向其他研究团体介绍你自己的研究计划
    Here are some examples of how these are used:
    下面是一些如何使用这些的例子：
    Inevitably, considerable computation was involved.
    不可避免地，涉及到大量的计算。
    Only a brief observation was feasible, however, given the number in the sample.
    然而，鉴于样本中的数量，只能进行简短的观察。
    Although centrifugation could not remove all the excess solid drug, the amount remaining was negligible.
    虽然离心不能除去所有多余的固体药物，但剩余的量可以忽略不计。
    Solutions using (q = 1) differed slightly from the analytical solutions.
    使用（q = 1）的解决方案与分析解决方案略有不同。
    Continuing research will examine a string of dc-dc converters to determine if the predicted efficiencies can be achieved in practice.
    继续的研究将检查一串直流-直流转换器，以确定预测的效率是否可以在实践中实现。
    While the anode layer was slightly thicker than 13 μm, this was a minor deficit.
    虽然阳极层略厚于13 μm，但这是一个微小的缺陷。

    2.5 Writing a Methodology Section

    2.5撰写方法论章节
    In the next task, you will bring together and use all the information in this unit. You will write a Methodology section according to the model, using the grammar and vocabulary you have learned, so make sure that you have both the model (Section 2.3.3) and the vocabulary (Section 2.4) in front of you.
    在下一个任务中，你将把本单元中的所有信息结合起来使用。您将根据模型编写方法论部分，使用您所学的语法和词汇，因此请确保您面前有模型（第2.3.3节）和词汇（第2.4节）。
    In this unit you have seen the conventional model of the Methodology and the vocabulary conventionally used has been collected. Remember that when you write, your sentence patterns should also be conventional, so use the sentence patterns you have seen in the Methodology samples in this unit and in your target articles as models for your writing.
    在本单元中，你已经看到了方法论的传统模型，并且收集了传统使用的词汇。请记住，当你写作时，你的句型也应该是常规的，所以使用你在本单元的方法论样本和你的目标文章中看到的句型作为你写作的模式。
    Follow the model exactly this time, and in future, use it to check the Methodology of your work so that you can be sure that the information is in an appropriate order and that you have done what your readers expect you to do in this section.
    这一次完全按照这个模型来做，将来，用它来检查你的工作方法，这样你就可以确保信息的顺序是正确的，你已经做了读者希望你在这一节做的事情。
    Although a model answer is provided in the Key, you should try to have your own answer checked by a native speaker of English if possible, to make sure that you are using the vocabulary correctly.
    虽然答案中提供了一个标准答案，但如果可能的话，您应该尝试让母语为英语的人检查您自己的答案，以确保您正确使用词汇。

    2.5.1 Write a Methodology section

    2.5.1编写方法部分
    The aim of this task is for you to learn how to describe what you did and used so that any reader can repeat exactly what you did and obtain exactly the same result as you obtained. Remember that you are expected to show that you carried out your work with due care and that you had good reasons for doing what you did. The message is: This is exactly what I did, I did it carefully and I had good reasons for doing it in this way.
    这个任务的目的是让你学习如何描述你做了什么和使用了什么，这样任何读者都可以准确地重复你做了什么，并获得与你获得的完全相同的结果。记住，你应该表现出你以应有的谨慎来完成你的工作，并且你有很好的理由去做你所做的事情。我所传达的信息是：这正是我所做的，我做得很仔细，我有很好的理由这样做。
    To complete the task, imagine that you are writing up a research project which has carried out the first-ever attempt to cook chicken. Imagine that until now, everyone ate it raw. The task is to write a recipe for cooking chicken as if it were the Materials/Methods section of a research paper.
    为了完成任务，想象你正在写一个研究项目，该项目首次尝试烹饪鸡肉。想象一下，直到现在，每个人都吃它生。任务是写一份烹饪鸡肉的食谱，就好像它是一篇研究论文的材料/方法部分。
    As an example, instead of starting by writing something like Cut the chicken into four pieces, you could perhaps start with an overview of the entire procedure, or by giving the source of your chicken. Did you obtain it from a supermarket? Was it supplied by a laboratory facility? You will need to say what you used to cut the chicken up; using an axe gives a very different result from using a 4 cm Sabatier steel knife! Instead of writing Now put the chicken in a hot oven for about an hour and a half, you should write something like: Th e sample was then placed on a 300 × 600 mm stainless steel sheet and heated in a Panasonic E458 × 500 w standard fan-assisted oven for 90 minutes at 350°C.
    举个例子，你可以从整个过程的概述开始，或者从鸡肉的来源开始，而不是从写“把鸡肉切成四块”开始。你是从超市买的吗？是否由实验室提供？你需要说你用什么来切鸡肉;使用斧头和使用4厘米的萨巴蒂尔钢刀会产生非常不同的结果！不要写Now put the chicken in a hot oven for about a half hour，你应该写这样的话：然后将样品放在300 × 600 mm的不锈钢板上，并在松下E458 × 500 w标准风扇辅助烤箱中在350°C下加热90分钟。
    Don’t worry if you don’t know how to cook chicken — it doesn’t matter if you report that you cooked it by boiling it in vodka, but you must give the exact quantity and the brand name of the vodka you used, so that your method and results can be replicated by someone else. Remember to use the passive voice and the appropriate tense.
    如果你不知道如何烹饪鸡肉，不要担心--如果你报告说你是用伏特加煮鸡肉的，那也没关系，但你必须给予准确的数量和你使用的伏特加的品牌名称，这样你的方法和结果就可以被其他人复制。记住使用被动语态和适当的时态。
    The title of the research paper in which you report the new process is: AN APPROACH TO THE PREPARATION OF CHICKEN. Th e Introduction to your paper looks like this:
    您报告新工艺的研究论文的标题是：鸡的制备方法。你的论文的引言是这样的：

    Introduction
    Chicken preparation techniques are used in a range of applications both in homes and in restaurants. Chicken is easily available and can be locally produced in most areas; in addition it is easily digested and low in calories.
    鸡肉制备技术用于家庭和餐馆的一系列应用中。鸡肉很容易获得，在大多数地区都可以在当地生产;此外，它很容易消化，热量低。
    鸡肉制备技术用于家庭和餐馆的一系列应用中。鸡肉很容易获得，在大多数地区都可以在当地生产;此外，它很容易消化，热量低。
    自从邓迪的开创性工作报告了鸡肉制备的“自然”方法（邓迪等人，1990年），鸡被杀死，然后用盐生吃，有重大的创新。在法国，人们已经在改进鸡的屠宰方法方面做了大量的工作，而在美国，研究人员则专注于改善鸡的大小。“自然”方法被广泛使用，因为该过程所需的时间非常短;然而，一些问题仍未解决。使用邓迪方法制备的鸡肉的味道通常被认为是令人不快的，并且有充分的证据表明食用生肉会导致细菌感染的风险。
    The aim of this study was to develop a preparation method that would address these two problems. In this report, we describe the new method, which uses seasoning to improve the flavour while heating the chicken in order to kill bacteria prior to eating.
    本研究的目的是开发一种制备方法，将解决这两个问题。在这份报告中，我们描述了一种新的方法，它使用调味料来改善风味，同时加热鸡肉，以便在食用前杀死细菌。

    Now write the Methodology section of this paper. You should write approximately 250–400 words. If you get stuck and don’t know what to write next, use the model and the vocabulary to help you move forward. Don’t look at the Key until you have finished writing.
    现在写这篇论文的方法论部分。你应该写大约250-400字。如果你陷入了困境，不知道下一步该写什么，使用模型和词汇表来帮助你前进。写完后再看钥匙。

    2.5.2 Key

    2.5.2密钥
    Here is a sample answer. When you read it, think about which part of the model is represented in each sentence.
    下面是一个示例答案。当你读它的时候，想想模型的哪一部分在每个句子中被代表。

    Two experiments were carried out using diff erent combinations of seasoning and varying cooking temperatures. A 4.5 kg frozen organic chicken was purchased from Buyrite Supermarket. Buyrite only sell grade ‘A’ chickens approved by the Organic Farmers Association, thus ensuring both the homogeneity of the sample and the quality of the product. Seasonings were obtained from SeasonInc UK and were used as supplied.
    使用不同的调味料组合和不同的烹饪温度进行了两个实验。4.5kg冷冻有机鸡购自Buyrite超市。Buyrite只销售有机农民协会批准的A级鸡，从而确保样品的同质性和产品的质量。调味料从SeasonInc UK获得，并按供应使用。
    According to the method described by Hanks et al. (1998), the chicken was first immersed in freshly boiled water cooled to a temperature of 20°C and was subsequently rinsed thoroughly in a salt solution so as to reduce the level of bacteria on the surface of the chicken. In order to obtain two samples of equal size and weight for testing, the chicken was first skinned using a standard BS1709 Skin-o-matic; the flesh was then removed from the bone with a 4 cm steel Sabatier knife, after which it was cut into 3 cm-cubes, each weighing 100 g.
    根据Hanks等人（1998年）描述的方法，首先将鸡浸入冷却至20°C的新鲜沸水中，随后在盐溶液中彻底冲洗，以减少鸡表面的细菌水平。为了获得相同尺寸和重量的两个样品用于测试，首先使用标准BS 1709 Skin-o-matic将鸡剥皮;然后用4cm钢Sabatier刀从骨头上去除肉，之后将其切成3cm立方体，每个重100 g。
    Two of the cubes thus obtained were randomly selected for testing. Th e cubes were dried individually in a Phillips R2D2 Dehydrator for 10 minutes. Immediately aft er removing each cube from the dehydrator it was coated with the selected seasoning mixture and left to stand on a glass plate for 30 minutes at room temperature (16°C) in order to enhance absorption of the seasoning prior to heating. Seasoning quantities were measured used standard domestic kitchen scales and were therefore only approximate.
    随机选择由此获得的两个立方体进行测试。将立方体在菲利普斯R2D2脱水器中单独干燥10分钟。在从蒸煮器中取出每个立方体之后，立即将其用所选择的调味品混合物涂覆，并在室温（16°C）下在玻璃板上静置30分钟，以在加热之前增强调味品的吸收。使用标准家用厨房秤测量调味料量，因此仅为近似值。
    Each cube was then placed on an ovenproof dish and transferred to a pre-heated Panasonic Model 33KY standard electric fan-assisted oven at 150°C for 10 minutes. Th e product was removed from the oven and allowed to come to equilibrium, aft er which the cubes were assessed according to the TTS test developed by Dundee (Dundee, 1997).
    然后将每个立方体放置在耐热皿上，并转移到预热的Panasonic Model 33KY标准电风扇辅助烘箱中，在150°C下持续10分钟。从烘箱中取出产品并使其达到平衡，之后根据邓迪开发的TTS测试（邓迪，1997）评估立方体。

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